"A 'Type one' error is thinking that something special is happening when nothing special really is happening. A 'Type two' error is thinking that nothing special is happening, when in fact something rare or infrequent is happening." - Marcello Truzzi

All people embark on a journey, be it a spiritual journey, a journey for knowledge or a physical journey in search of material wealth. Ours was originally a journey for scientific knowledge in which we sought to understand the grand physics theories of everything. However, the science led us down an unexpected path and what started as a scientific journey, became a spiritual journey.

Any true theory of everything must lead one to understand what it means to be alive, to think, to exist and what purpose this existence has. Such a path provides answers to these questions, not from philosophical musings, but from an understanding of hard scientific fact, by an understanding of the mechanisms at work within the Universe itself, which give rise to all its multitude of forms and interactions.

For a long time we carried and held onto this knowledge, for it is difficult to act upon a belief that interferes with usual living. Yet here and now, we have taken a tremendous leap of faith, taken a great risk and have given up usual living to fully devote our time to write this and release this knowledge. This is what we were born to do and to not release this would be the greatest injustice to both ourselves and to our people.

Thus we have acted with the hope the consequences of our act will bring benefit to all. Everyday we questioned whether this information is true, whether our efforts would have merit, if there would even be interest, but always within was this burning passion and determination which drove us to continue regardless of any doubt. At the very least, we will leave this world content, knowing we made a sincere effort.

This writing is the culmination of over forty years of thought, research and investigation into the subjects discussed within. It represents the conclusions of decades of work. We trust our efforts will show in the result. We have made every effort to make this work as coherent, relevant, important and useful to you the reader, as possible.

What is this work? Simply put, it is knowledge. This is a tiny hole, which opens up into a tremendous cavern. It is a little match stick capable of burning down the forest of ignorance. A small candle pushing back the darkness of confusion. It is a tiny thorn in the foot of the establishment. A little spark which can blow the whole lid off the suppression of knowledge.

Why was this work written? It was written for the sole purpose of bringing knowledge to the individual but more importantly to the service of all of humanity. For it is to the service of humanity this work has been done and presented. This knowledge could save us, restore peace, enhance our planet, and advance our situation in ways undreamed of.

For who was this work written? This work was written for friends and family, even for those friends and family yet unmet. Let this work be a guide and source of knowledge to aid in knowing what is truly important in the world, let it provide a guiding light through the darkness, let it provide a way through the impossible and evil efforts to control and suppress knowledge, let it clearly show the path to a greater world for all of humanity.

Why would you take the time to read this? Within you will find insight and knowledge you may not find anywhere else. Within you will find a return the ideas of simplicity and ease with which we were born and intended to live. Within you will find real, tangible answers to many of the problems and questions all human beings face.

These were questions we asked and within are the answers we found. We openly share them, in the hope they will help others who have not the time or effort to expend searching for this knowledge themselves.

This document was produced to freely give the knowledge discovered. We did not release this knowledge for personal gain, fame or fortune. It is these things which have kept these ideas hidden for too long. There is seen a need and desire for this knowledge all around us. May the efforts undertaken, lead others down a better path and bring them guidance and hope when it is needed the most.

The dissemination of knowledge should make people stronger, not be distracting, not confuse, not weaken. Knowledge should connect people to each other, to their purpose, should bring people together, and should unite people for a greater good. Knowledge should empower and uplift, it should enlighten us and improve our condition. Knowledge has immense value and is the ultimate power. This knowledge is an ultimate, immortal, priceless gift which we can give to the world.

Let this knowledge guide, cure ignorance, dispel confusion, let it make people feel smarter, be smarter, be wiser, make them challenge established norms and most importantly let this knowledge give people the courage and confidence to wake from their foggy slumber to stand up against those who sought to suppress and keep knowledge from them.

Enjoy your journey through OVAL Tech III.

Guide and Instructions

The site is quite straight forward and you can read through it like a book if you wish. We have attempted to present the information in a linear and clear fashion, but the nature of the subject is vast, complex, interconnected and not entirely linear.

The information and connections go much deeper then it will appear at first glance. Sections, expand, further information is provided and you can quickly end up going deep down the rabbit hole of specific subjects.

Showing the interconnections between the sections has been the most difficult. Upon reading you may find some duplication and repetition, internal links circle within, but we do this to demonstrate the interconnections and interrelationships between the various topics. Many subjects which do not appear to be related are or they would not be included. Everything all ties together in ways which may not at first appear obvious. Thus we have made efforts to clarify the interconnections and common elements as much as possible, without become entirely circular, too repetitive or just convoluted in our explanations.

There is really no start or end, you can jump in to whichever subject or part is of interest to you. We recommend using the Site Contents Listing to navigate.

As mentioned, writing about a concept which touches upon everything could never hope to ever be complete. Although this work is long, we really feel like we have barely scratched the surface of the subjects and information. Many sections deserve a book of their own to expound on the concepts. We could add further examples and connections forever, without end, extrapolating and discussing the implications of these ideas upon this or that subject.

Thus, this work should always be considered a dynamic work and will be subject to change on input from others, new information will be added, old information will be retracted, and the answers will continue to become ever clearer over time. The ability to change is a necessity. That is what makes this work.

To this end we have thus far sorted the document into sections which will hopefully organize the document in a way which allows the reader to find areas of interest. We have made every effort to keep the complex subject simple, providing diagrams and animations as well as many external video links and papers which discuss the various ideas and concepts in more detail.

Navigation

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Albert Einstein and the Unified Field

"The human mind is not capable of grasping the Universe. We are like a little child entering a huge library. The walls are covered to the ceilings with books in many different tongues. The child knows that someone must have written these books. It does not know who or how. It does not understand the languages in which they are written. But the child notes a definite plan in the arrangement of the books—-a mysterious order which it does not comprehend, but only dimly suspects." - Albert Einstein

We begin this journey for knowledge, by following the path of one of the greatest, most curious scientists to have ever lived, Albert Einstein. Albert Einstein was a true scientists, in that he had a sincere curiosity and a deep desire to understand the meaning and mechanism behind the world in which he lived. This is our measure of true science, a desire for knowledge for the sake of curiosity itself and to know who we are and our place in the world. Here we will follow Albert Einstein's path and let it guide our own path.

The fairest thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true science. He who knows it not and can no longer feel amazement is as good as dead, a snuffed out candle. - Albert Einstein

The unexamined life is not worth living. - Socrates

We will begin by discussing the ideas Albert Einstein is best know for, the Theory of Relativity. We will then continue with a deeper look at Albert Einstein's pursuit of an even broader and all encompassing theory of the Universe.

When Albert Einstein completed his Theory of Relativity, the likely possibility of creating an even broader, more unifying theory of physics became apparent. At the time Relativity theory was released there were known to science two predominant forces at work in the Universe, which defined how everything interacted. The forces of Gravity and Electromagnetism.

We were familiar with the force of gravity, as defined by Sir Isaac Newton, using it to calculate the motion of the heavenly bodies we saw in the sky. James Clerk Maxwell had released his Electromagnetic Theory, which successfully unified the physics of electric fields with the physics of magnetic fields into one field, the electromagnetic field. This definition of the relationships of electromagnetic fields, brought civilization into the current electrical age. The bigger question then became, could these two theories of Gravity and Electromagnetism be linked together, like the ideas of electricity and magnetism were, thus advancing civilization even further?

Relativity theory was merely a means to an end for Albert Einstein to lay down the framework and foundation for the development of a much broader theory, a theory which unified the electromagnetic field and gravitational field into a single theory. He sought to simplify our understanding of the underlying nature of the Universe, which had the potential bring about even greater advancement to humanity, like the mastery and control of gravity itself.

According to his recollections, Einstein (1949a, 73-75) had always considered his 1915 field theory of gravitation, the general theory of relativity, as nothing but a stepping stone toward a ‘unified field theory’, which would somehow integrate both gravitational and electromagnetic fields into a single field structure. - Marco Giovanelli

What Albert Einstein eventually proposed was the electromagnetic field and gravitational field were the effects of a single, greater field, which he called the "one harmonic field" or "Unified Field". Contrary to the established notions of Albert Einstein's effort at unification failing, we find evidence in papers, letters and even experiments, Albert Einstein considered his efforts at unification successful and most importantly an experimentally verifiable form of his Unified Field Theory was completed.

In the meantime, modern physics continues to grow and advance without taking account of Einstein's unifying attempts and in fact denying even the possibility of such an attempt being successful.- Dr. Cornelius Lanczos

Albert Einstein was not the first, nor last to attempt such a grand unification in physics, as such a simplification of science and our understanding of the Universe is a the most just and noble pursuit in all of science. The idea of unification in physics is considered the most difficult problem of them all. These unification theories, otherwise known as Grand Unification Theories or Grand Theories of Everything attempt to bring all of physics within one simple equation.

Such a singular or unified solution would explain the deep fundamental workings of the Universe we live in. The discovery of this unification, would bring about remarkable and unimaginable benefits to humanity. It would allow humanity to travel to other stars, harness unlimited energy, and prolong life. Today physicists are faced with an enormous challenge to solve such a unification.

We see many great scientists considered and thought about this idea of unification even before Albert Einstein. Michael Faraday's work hinted at a unified theory of forces and although Faraday's work led to the unification of electric and magnetic forces developed by Maxwell, Faraday saw the possibility of a deeper "common origin" for all forces. Faraday strongly believed that different forces, such as electric and magnetic forces, were mutually dependent and stemmed from one common origin.

2146. I have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in common I believe with many other lovers of natural knowledge, that the various forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest have one common origin; or, in other words, are so directly related and mutually dependent, that they are convertible, as it were, one into another, and possess equivalents of power in their action. - Michael Faraday. Experimental Researches in Electricity Vol.3 1855

2702. The long and constant persuasion that all the forces of nature are mutually dependent, having one common origin, or rather being different manifestations of one fundamental power (2146.), has made me often think upon the possibility of establishing, by experiment, a connection between gravity and electricity, and so introducing the former into the group, the chain of which, including also magnetism, chemical force and heat, binds so many and such varied exhibitions of force together by common relations. Though the researches I have made with this object in view have produced only negative results, yet I think a short statement of the matter, as it has presented itself to my mind, and of the result of the experiments, which offering at first much to encourage, were only reduced to their true value by most careful searchings after sources of error, may be useful, both as a general statement of the problem, and as awakening the minds of others to its consideration. 2703.

In searching for some principle on which an experimental inquiry after the identification or relation of the two forces could be founded, it seemed that if such a relation existed, there must be something in gravity which would correspond to the dual or antithetical nature of the forms of force in electricity and magnetism. To my mind it appeared possible that the ceding to the force or the approach of gravitating bodies on the one hand, and the effectual reversion of the force or separation of the bodies on the other, might present the points of correspondence; quiescence (as to motion) being- the neutral condition. The final unchangeability of gravity did not seem affected by such an assumption; for the acting bodies when at rest would ever have the same relation to each other, and it would only be at the times of motion to and fro that any results related to electricity could be expected. Such results, if possible, could only be exceedingly small; but,

if possible, i. e. if true, no terms could exaggerate the value of the relation they would establish. - Michael Faraday on the possibility of all forces stemming from a common origin. The Bakerian Lecture.- Experimental researches in electricity.— Twenty-fourth series

Today we find established physics, at least from the perspective of achieving a unification of physics theories, in what could only be described as a 'complex mess'. Primarily we have two huge, competing theories which theoretical scientists and mathematicians are attempting to combine. At the large, macroscopic, cosmological scales we have the Relativity Theory developed by Albert Einstein, which describes the gravitational field and forces between mass, yet is unable to adequately explain the mass, particles and their interactions themselves. At the very small, microscopic, atomic scales we have the Theory of Quantum Mechanics developed by numerous scientists, which describes the electromagnetic forces at work within atoms and subatomic particles like electrons with no connection to gravity and large cosmological events. Thus we have two different physics theories which apply at two opposite scales of the Universe.

Physics has also introduced two new forces to explain the interactions within the nuclei of atoms, the Strong Nuclear Force and the Weak Nuclear Force, which are considered additional fundamental forces required in the Universe. Since the release of Relativity theory we have discovered numerous other particles of matter, neutrino's, quarks, meson's and other strange force carrying things. From this physicists have developed another complex theory called The Standard Model to describe all these entities.

The Standard Model proposed the idea of a gravitational force carrier, the graviton, but this appears to be ignored today and the gravitational field considered irrelevant. Thus the Standard Model is incomplete, because it gives no explanation for the gravitational forces between the various masses it defines. These additional theories, seem only to add further complexity and confusion to our understanding, rather then providing any deeper fundamental, unifying knowledge.

Despite being perhaps the most familiar fundamental interaction, gravity is not described by the Standard Model, due to contradictions that arise when combining general relativity, the modern theory of gravity, and quantum mechanics. However, gravity is so weak at microscopic scales, that it is essentially immeasurable. The graviton is postulated to be the mediating particle, but has not yet been proved to exist. - from The Standard Model - Wikipedia

Thus we see here how science has tended to disregard gravity, even within the very theory which proposes to describe matter itself, disregarding the original concept of gravity formulated as "the attractive force between matter". Quantum mechanics mostly dispenses with gravity as well, due to it being so weak, yet proposes additional strong forces to define the nuclear interactions and now attempts to "quantize" gravity under the wing of the theories of Quantum Mechanics. Modern science treats the gravitational force of matter, as inconvenient at best, irrelevant at worst.

The theory of relativity and gravity itself is not without its flaws and holes. In cosmology, they have discovered the stars of galaxies do not follow the paths predicted by simple Newtonian or Relativistic equations and the Universe seems to be expanding in a way we have yet to explain. The stars far out from the center of galaxies, should move slower due to the reduced influence of gravity at increasing distance from the center of mass. Yet, in measurements of stars far from galactic centers astronomers discovered the stars move faster than they should, as if there is more gravitational force or more mass than we can detect.

Thus the concept of Dark Matter was proposed. Dark matter, is an invisible, undetected, unknown substance, akin to magic, which supposedly holds the whole Universe together. It is currently estimated Dark matter would need to comprise an incredible 85% of the matter of the Universe to explain the observations. We too cannot determine why the Universe appears to be expanding at the rate observed and thus another invisible, undetectable, unknown magical force, Dark Energy, has been suggested as some unknown form of energy which powers the universal expansion. Thus current cosmology is clearly incomplete or mistaken in some significant manner as it essentially uses magic to explain the observations.

To achieve unification today, a grand theory of everything would have to include Relativity Theory, Quantum Mechanics, the Standard Model, the Strong and Weak nuclear forces as well as solve many cosmological problems. We can see, rather than trying to simplify and unify physics since Relativity theory, the physics establishment has only contributed additional complexity and division to our understanding. It has even been suggested, there is no unification possible, that modern scientists should just entirely give up on such proposals for unification and instead we must begrudgingly accept all these different theories are just the way it all works.

Sabine Hossenfelder proposes any Final Theory of Unification is impossible, due to the "UV Finite problem". This is why I think a Theory of Everything does not exist - Sabine Hossenfelder. Basically, things get very 'blurry' at very small scales. For this reason, Sabine proposes, no theory could every hope to be complete, because it would have to account for things which cannot be measured or known. This leads to a circular argument is which a theory of everything cannot exist, because we cannot even know everything because things just become so obscure at small scales we simply cannot know them. Thus it seems any grand theory, would have to accommodate within it, this incalculable, unknowable, nature of things. Yet despite this supposed incalculable, unknowable character of the universe, we certainly exist and experience the reality of things around us.

We see how the problem of unification with today's physics is so difficult, many have just chosen to give up. Perhaps there is a different way we can approach the whole problem.

Accepting this idea of theories which 'Decouple at Scale' and this 'Division of Theory' or reality as "Multiple Competing Theories", is not something many scientists are willing to do. This is rightly so, and we would agree, the most sensible way to approach the problem is with Albert Einstein's original assumption that "The same laws should apply at all scales" and that a "Unification is possible".

If our theories do not work at different scales nor provide unification, than sensibility would suggest they must be considered incomplete. What really needs to be accepted, regarding the current state of physics, is there is a significant, fundamental, deep flaw or a crucial missing concept in our understanding. We for one cannot fathom how the mechanism and laws of the Universe would change and involve different laws and processes depending on how and from where we look at it.

Physical division of theory in fact violates fundamental physics itself. The laws of physics are the same in all references frames, which by extension must include reference frames at different scale as well.

It is not at all illogical to state, if our current theories of physics do not adequately describe the entirety of reality and are not even compatible with each other, then clearly there is a very fundamental and important element missing from those theories and thus our understanding.

We have to admit the current theories as a whole are unarguably, incomplete due to their incompatibility with and omissions from each other. We should be willing to accept that we may need to seriously revisit and reconsider many of our original assumptions and be open to new perspectives and information. We should consider somewhere along the road, we might have taken a wrong turn. We should consider, there is somewhere we forgot to look.

This does not entirely disregard any of these modern theories and in no way saying these theories are totally wrong, because they are indeed very successful and accurate, as far as they go. These theories of Quantum Mechanics, the Standard Model, and Relativity have been proven successful both mathematically and experimentally for the specific problems to which they are applied. As far as they reach and for their intended purposes, they are successful and entirely capable of predicting experimental results. Thus a solution must not contradict any of this existing theory, but present it in a new way which complements it and better unites it.

Our goal is to propose the existence of another, simpler, unified way to describe and define the same phenomenon. There may be different perspectives and different ways to look at the problem, which could provide a cleaner, more straightforward, less complicated understanding. Most of what we are going to say or discuss in this writing follows this precept and is compatible with established physics theory, although some reinterpretation is strongly suggested regarding certain theories.

Just because theory 'A' provides a solution, does not mean there are not other theories, like theory 'B' or theory 'C' which can also provide a solution. Just because we have theory 'A' and it works to a point, does not mean we should not continue to look for theory 'B' or 'C'. All three theories might work to solve a specific problem, but we may find theory 'B' or 'C' may offer a clearer path towards unification.

Most importantly, we should not let dogma, complacency or personal opinions, prevent us from considering other options. One of the best characteristics of science itself, is its ability to change misunderstandings or mistakes when new, more concise solutions present themselves. Thus scientists should always be open to the potential of new ideas and never solidly hold any theory as ever complete and certain.

The real difficulty today may not even be in finding the simple unifying solution itself, but in explaining how this simple solution applies and explains away the incredibly complex mess established physics has created. Could established physics even accept such a simplification if it was discovered today?

On Unification in Physics - On Progress in Physics - opip.lol. Provides a visual Map on Unification. Points out excellent key points on the problem with Unification.

Thus it is logical to seek a simpler unified solution under the assumption such a solution exists, for the simplest, most unified solution is always the best solution. So long as there is evidence and experiments which can demonstrate and support a stance, then all such stances should be considered. Above all we want to see the applications and practical results from such a unification, what does it imply and how can it be utilized, not just for technological achievement, but in our lives directly.

Let us continue to follow this path towards unification with Faraday and Einstein's same conviction.

Understanding Relativity and Space/Time Curvature

The Theory of Relativity is complex and it is not the goal here to provide a full explanation, but we must discuss certain aspects of Relativity and understand the basic idea in order to proceed. Relativity theory can be understood from a simple perspective and we stick to the idea that if we cannot explain it simply, then we do not fully understand it. Thus we provide here an easy to understand explanation of the complex theory of Relativity.

We need a little history of the idea of motion in physics prior to the development of Relativity theory. The motion of bodies in physics was adequately described by the laws of Sir Issac Newton. We could even consider Newton the founding father of Physics itself.

Sir Isaac Newton's theory was in essence the very first 'Unification' theory, in which a single physics theory attempted to explain all of reality. At the time, Newton had a much simpler physical problem, although he himself had to develop the entire framework within which that problem was defined and solved. Newton sought only to explain this puzzling force of gravity, which attracted objects downward towards the surface of the Earth.

In order to do so, he laid down laws of motion, mass and force itself. Thus he laid down the fundamental understanding of what mass, force and accelerating forces were and how they interacted with each other. This began the physical sciences, in which we attempted to define our observations of reality, with physical and mathematical laws. Thus as far as Newton was concerned, his final theory of motion was a complete unifying description of everything which physically happened in reality. The Newtonion laws of motion are:

1. A body remains at rest, or in motion at a constant speed in a straight line, except insofar as it is acted upon by a force.
2. At any instant of time, the net force on a body is equal to the body's acceleration multiplied by its mass or, equivalently, the rate at which the body's momentum is changing with time.
3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces have the same magnitude but opposite directions.

For many years the Newtonian laws were adequate, even to the point of being physics dogma and unquestionable. There were no known exceptions or anything outside this understanding. However, with the discovery of electric and magnetic fields, new forces were found to be at work in nature and because of this new knowledge, Albert Einstein saw issues with some of the original postulates and assumptions of Newton's laws.

Newton had proposed there was an all pervasive "Ether" in the Universe, which was an all encompassing substance within which all this motion existed and occurred. We could always define motion as being 'relative to', 'within' or 'in regards to' to this ether. This concept in physics is called an 'absolute reference frame'. He further suggested the forces between bodies, including gravity, happened instantly or instantaneously so the forces between bodies effected all those bodies at the same time. This is a definition we would call 'absolute time'. Thus under the Newtonian understanding of physics, there was this idea of Absolute Space and Absolute Time.

Einstein's Theory of Relativity, revisited these assumptions as new experiments with electromagnetic fields, properties of light and the orbit of planets suggested some problems with the original assumptions of Newton.

What is really interesting and remarkable about relativity theory, is it came from Einstein's speculations of energy and mass equivalence. The energy considered, was primarily electromagnetic and determining how electromagnetic energy was related to mass and thus gravity was unknown at the time. This led to Albert Einstein's famous equation E=mc^2, which states that mass and energy are equivalent or that mass can be converted into energy and energy into mass.

Adding energy to mass, increased the mass. It was determined that all energy thus has some "apparent" mass and thus can be effected by acceleration or a gravitational field. Thus the idea of a unification or connection between the two, was strongly suggested. This idea of equivalence between matter and energy, led to the ideas of Relativity, which in turn laid down the foundation for a theory of unification.

The concept of energy/mass equivalence led too and was used to prove Relativity. Since light has energy Einstein speculated light should, by its energy/mass equivalence, also have some mass and thus would be effected by a gravitational field. When scientists observed light from a far off star, as that light passed very close to the Sun, they indeed detected the gravitational field of the Sun caused the light to bend or curve as it passed by the Sun. So they saw the star's position appear to be slightly shifted, as the light from that star passed close to the Sun. The path of the light, was bent by the gravity of the Sun.

Path of light from a star, curved by the gravity of the Sun

Thus even light itself was determined to have mass which could be effected by a gravitational field. Thus it was formally recognized, all energy has mass, all mass has an equivalent measure of energy and we can convert one to the other. This is the process at work in nuclear energy and nuclear weapons. Some of the mass of certain elements is converted to energy for heat or to create an explosion. These concepts of energy and mass equivalence, led Einstein to investigate the very concepts of space and time in greater detail in an effort to better define the nature of this principle of equivalence.

There are two parts to Relativity, Special Relativity and General Relativity. Although Special Relativity is a special case of General Relativity, it was developed first.

Unifying Gravitation and Electricity

In the meantime, modern physics continues to grow and advance without taking account of Einstein's unifying attempts and in fact denying even the possibility of such an attempt being successful.- Dr. Cornelius Lanczos

Here we will attempt to shed more light on the principles behind and the real world repercussions of Albert Einstein's complicated Unified Field Theory.

First let us clarify some terminology, as there is already some confusion. We can talk about the 'unification' of gravity and electricity and even the 'unification' of various theories of physics. However, we should not confuse this with the idea of a 'unified field' as this is a different concept entirely.

Unification refers to combining separate entities into one. A Unified Field refers to one field.

Thus when Einstein is talking about a 'unified field', we should be clear he is referring to the existence of a single field in the Universe, one field, from which the other fields we know of are composed or related. A unification of theories, may or may not result in the existence of a single field as an explanation, only that these theories may be combined into some more encompassing theory. This distinction is important to understand what the Unified Field theory represents.

With the framework of Relativity established, Albert Einstein finally saw the potential to connect the ideas of gravity and the electromagnetic field. Einstein saw in Relativity that electromagnetic field and indeed all energy had an associated value of mass and could be effected by the gravitational field. Further he saw that mass was not something in and of its own special character, but that mass could be converted into energy. He saw here some glimmer of a possible connection between the gravitational field and the electromagnetic field and thus began an effort to unify the two concepts.

This idea of a potential unification of gravity and electromagnetism was what drove Einstein to develop energy/mass equivalence and the Relativity theory. There was a bigger more fundamental conclusion which could be drawn from Relativity theory and its development was not an end in and of itself, but to lay down a framework upon which a much grander, unification between gravitational field and electromagnetic field could be established. This was Einstein's real goal.

According to General relativity, as explained by many established physicists, gravitational force is Space/Time curvature. What we find though is this Space/Time curvature simply becomes physically apparent as an acceleration, which we can equate with the action of a force, what we called the Force of Gravity. You can say relativity proved gravity is not a force, but we can still consider gravity as such and we worked quite well with only Newton's theories for a long time. However, maybe we are better to say gravity is not a force, just an acceleration?

Whether the force causing the acceleration comes from the force of gravity or curvature of Space/Time does not really make much difference in our physical experience of the result, which is being pulled down to the surface of Earth. However, when we consider the gravitational force as acceleration, we do find a possible connection to electromagnetism, for in electromagnetism we find also a relationship to acceleration. Perhaps, through this common bridge of acceleration of electromagnetic fields and acceleration of curved Space/Time, is where we find the connection between gravity and electromagnetism. That is there is no direct connection between gravity and electromagnetism, but through some intermediary related to the forces of acceleration, we could potentially make a connection.

In order to relate the fields of gravity and electromagnetism the Unified Field theory suggested the existence of another higher order or general field structure in the Universe, of which the gravitational field and the electromagnetic field were both special cases. Our measure of mass, even mass associated with electromagnetic fields, cause what has been called curving or distortion in Space/Time. Einstein proposed with his Unified Field theory, the masses themselves may be only concentrations of fields in Space/Time. In this context, mass is not something in Space/Time which curves Space/Time, but much more fundamentally mass itself IS the curvature of Space/Time and this curvature is defined by the fields acting in that Space/Time.

By reasoning this way, we find our concepts of solidity, particles and mass itself become changed, we find mass and electromagnetism are both properties of the Unified field, the Unified Field being a distortion of Space/Time itself. According to Einstein, even the charges and masses themselves might be considered as simple harmonics of fields. Einstein always dismissed quantum mechanics, because he was certain it could be defined by less rigorous mathematics. He felt the Unified Field Theory suggested the idea of a "harmonic mechanical field" which would collapse the probabilities of Quantum Mechanics.

But for Einstein, the empirical success of non-relativistic quantum mechanics did not demand that the unified description of the fundamental fields itself should be a quantized one. Rather the foundational unified conceptualization should somehow provide a conceptual justification for the stochastic aspects of quantum theory and for its violations of classical determinism. - P7 Einstein’s Unified Field Theory Program

In Einstein's book, "The meaning of Relativity"-The Third Addition he added an appendix in the fourth edition, which discussed the Unified Field Theory, called "Relativistic Theory of the Non-Symmetric Field". In the sixth edition of this book he chose to refer to this as his "Relativistic Theory of the Non-Symmetric field. We even find in this work, further reference to the vanishing of the Magnetic Current Density as part of the solution to Unification. From different reference frames, we can eliminate the magnetic field and express the magnetic forces as purely electric or gravitational in nature. It is interesting to note that the concept of magnetism does not really appear in later versions of the Unified Field theory, and the theories are named theories of unification between "gravitation and electricity" only, not unification's of "gravity and electromagnetism".

Einstein discusses at length the requirement for a different geometry or metric within which the Unified Field theory existed. For his Unified Field to work, both Euclidean and Riemmannian Spaces needed to co-exist. Euclidean metrics can exist within another manifold, duplicated even, like how cells make up the body. These Euclidean spaces may exist within a broader Riemmannian space, so both distant parallelism and local curvature can exist. Distant Teleparallelism was key to Einstein's Unified Field Theory and is discussed in the paper and the Riemmanian Metric even appears in the titles of some of the Unified Field theory papers.

"Indeed, the new theory succeeds in uniting the fundamental laws of relativity mechanics and the fundamental laws of electricity into a single formula. As per this formula, there is only one substance, the ‘field,’ and only one law of the universe; the field is composed of electrical and gravitational components, and all these components are united under a single formula. Einstein was able to show that the previously known laws can be derived from this formula such that it signifies the subordination of the two formerly divided realms under a higher law. Yet, the new formula achieves still more; it represents the older theory of two systems as a special case and makes new assertions concerning the relation between gravitation and electricity in relatively complicated fields. Thus, the new theory is of more than merely formal significance because it asserts the existence of an effect of gravitation upon electrical events and vice versa. It is not yet possible to form a picture of how this connection will work out in detail from a physical standpoint. In particular, it remains an open question whether the new theory will enable scientists to solve the puzzle of quantum theory, which itself represents a peculiar combination of mechanics and electricity theory." (Reichenbach, 1929c; tr. 1978, 1:262; m.e.)

We find this description of quantum mechanics as being a "peculiar combination of mechanics and electricity" to be quite relevant to our continued discussion. We further find the idea of an effect of "gravitation upon electrical events and vice versa" to be quite telling as to the nature of the unification we are after. Reichenbach is quick to admit he does not understand exactly how this connection, physically "works" but only that his theory "asserts" such a connection between gravity and electricity exists.

There is significant evidence which confirms Einstein's confidence in solving his Unified Field Theory, despite modern accounts that it remained unsolved until Einstein's death. We find further evidence for the Unified Field theory being solved to Einstein's satisfaction in the New York Time articles referenced below and his comments to his son, Eduard. We do find the existence of the final unifying equation between gravity and electricity, yet none seem to give this any significance. We should most certainly consider this connection much more seriously and within this document we will examine in great detail the physical aspects of such a connection between gravity and electricity.

Einstein's Unifying Equation between Gravitational Field and Electrical Field

Guv-1/2Gguv = -k(Tuv+Tuo)

Evidence for the Completion of Albert Einstein's Unified Field Theory

It is interesting that from about 1927 to 1931 the New York Times published stories of Albert Einstein's discoveries, often going into far more technical and mathematical detail than most of its readers would even understand. Of specific interest is the wording and descriptions of The Unified Field theory, often straight from Albert Einstein himself. We see in Einstein's own words, not words of failure, speculation or incompleteness, but one of utter confidence in his theories successful completion and the implications thereof.

This is a duplicate of an article written by Albert Einstein for the New York Times, titled "Einstein Discusses his new Theory of the Universe". This article was released a few years after the release of Einstein's theory of relativity. You will see for yourself, after reading the article, that Albert Einstein felt his unification was successful, not incomplete. The article's wording is one of excitement and considers the remarkable implications this new Unified Field theory may bring to humanity. Mr. Einstein discusses in great detail how his theory "Unifies" the forces of gravity and electromagnetism and how he has discovered the "Unifying" fundamental nature of our universe. He does not speak of having to continue to work at developing a solution, or that it is incomplete. He expresses confidence and satisfaction in the completion of the unification.

We find in Alberta Einstein's own words to his son, Eduard Einstein ( Tetel ), not words of a struggle, failure or of his continued effort to solve the problem, but words of happiness, achievement and triumph in his completion of the problem of unifying gravity and electricity. These words are in strike contrast to the established narrative of Einsteins efforts being unsuccessful. We would consider these quotes direct evidence there is more to Albert Einstein's unification between gravity and electricity, then modern scientists appear to grasp.

"I am now very happy because I finally solved to my total satisfaction, after immeasurable intensive work, my gravitation-electricity problem."-Albert Einstein in a letter to his son Eduard Einstein ( Tetel ) - 1929

"This in a way concludes my life's work - the remainder is simply bonus material."-Albert Einstein in a letter to his son Eduard Einstein ( Tetel ) - 1929

"Physicists consider me an old fool but I am convinced that the future development of physics will depart from the present road."-Albert Einstein commenting on Quantum Mechanics

This theory( Relativity ) having brought together the metric and gravitation would have been completely satisfactory if the world had only gravitational fields and no electro-magnetic fields. Now it is true that the latter can be included within the general theory of relativity by taking over and appropriately modifying Maxwell's equations of the electro-magnetic field, but they do not then appear like the gravitational fields as structural properties of the space-time continuum, but as logically independent constructions. The two types of field are causally linked in this theory, but still not fused to an identity. It can, however, scarcely be imagined that empty space has conditions or states of two essentially different kinds, and it is natural to suspect that this only appears to be so because the structure of the physical continuum is not completely described by the Riemannian metric.

The new unitary field theory removes this fault by displaying both types of field as manifestations of one comprehensive type of spatial structure in the space-time continuum. The stimulus to the new theory arose from the discovery that there exists a structure between the Riemannian space structure and the Euclidean, which is richer in formal relationships than the former, but poorer than the latter. Consider a two-dimension Riemannian space in the form of the surface of a hen's egg. Since this surface is embedded in our ( accurately enough ) Euclidean space, it possesses a Riemannian metric. In fact, it has a perfectly definite meaning to speak of the distance of two neighboring points P, Q on the surface. Similarly it has, of course, a meaning to say of two such pairs of points (PQ) (P'Q'), at separate parts of the surface of the egg, that the distance PQ is equal to the distance (P'Q'). On the other hand, it is impossible now to compare the direction PQ with the direction P'Q'. In particular it is meaningless to demand that P'Q' shall be chosen parallel to PQ. In the corresponding Euclidean geometry of two dimensions, the Euclidean geometry of the plane, directions can be compared and the relationship of parallelism can exist between lines in regions of the plane at any distance from one another ( distant parallelism). To this extent the Euclidean continuum is richer in relationships than the Riemannian. - Albert Einstein From "Expanding the Theory" article in the New York Times

The new unitary field theory is based on the following mathematical discovery: There are continua with a Riemannian metric and distant parallelism which nevertheless are not Euclidean. It is easy to show, for instance, in the case of a three-dimensional space, how such a continuum differs from a Euclidean. First of all, in such a continuum there are lines whose elements are parallel to one another. We shall call those "straight lines." It also has a definite meaning to speak of two parallel straight lines as in the Euclidean case. Now choose two such parallels E1L1 and E2L2 and mark on each a point P1, P2. On E1L1 choose in addition a point Q1. If we now draw through Q1 a straight line Q1-R parallel to the straight line P1, P2, then in Euclidean geometry this will cut the straight line E2L2: in the geometry now used the line Q1-R and the line E2L2 do not in general cut one another. To this extent the geometry now used is not only a specialization of the Riemannian but also a generalization of the Euclidean geometry. My opinion is that our space-time continuum has a structure of the kind here outlined. The mathematical problem whose solution, in my view, leads to the correct field laws is to be formulated thus. Which are the simplest and most natural conditions to which a continuum of this kind can be subjected? The answer to this question which I have attempted to give in a new paper yields unitary field laws for gravitation and electro-magnetism. - Albert Einstein From "A Mathematical Discovery" article in the New York Times

Einstein is discussing how the Unified Field Theory utilizes a geometry where the line Q1- R, does not cut line E2L2. How puzzling.

We can only speculate on what the physical form of such a structure which is between the Riemannian space structure and the Euclidean actually looks like. We could speculate the only geometry which could possibly yield this, is some sort of spiralling, helical or 'open' geometry, which does not even truly define a volume. This would by necessity need to be some sort of infinite, curving space with no end in certain directions. We would like to see represented this geometry, but unfortunately do not posses the mathematical and geometric knowledge to diagram such a geometry. Again, our point here is Albert Einstein had resolved the problem, by applying this unique geometry and states without any doubt, his paper has yielded unitary field laws for gravitation and electro-magnetism. He is not saying he is still working on the problem, he clearly states he figured it out.

The following quote is very significant to understanding the Unified Field Theory as Einstein understood it.The force Albert Einstein is talking about in this quote, is NOT gravity!

"Now, but only now, we know that the force which moves electrons in their ellipses about the nuclei of atoms is the same force which moves our Earth in its annual course about the sun and is the same force which brings to us the rays of light and heat which make life possible on this planet" - Albert Einstein

We discuss this quote in more detail elsewhere, but suffice it to say we do not currently consider "gravity" to be the force which moves electrons in their ellipses about the nuclei of atoms or which brings to us the rays of light and heat and yet we do consider gravity as the force responsible for moving our Earth in its annual course about the sun. Albert Einstein is mixing up different forces in this statement. The force he is describing cannot be "gravity". Thus in this quote, Albert Einstein is hinting at a different, currently unrecognized, unifying force.

We also find these additional articles published over the following years, some more mathematical than others, which elude to the existence of Albert Einstein's unitary, unifying field laws. Even these previous quotes discuss the achievement in a positive light, despite Einstein himself expressing some disapproval with the mathematical formulas being published in a newspaper, as so few would even have the means to grasp their implications.

We do not hear words of failure in these quotes and explanations. We do not hear words of continued effort and further work required to solve the problem. We hear the beaming excitement of success and personal achievement. We hear the delight and peace of mind of one who has achieved their goal. Thus despite what many physicists claim, we can conclude the Unification between Gravity and Electricity was completed by Albert Einstein.

When we say Albert Einstein's Unified Field theory was complete, we mean it was correct and verifiable to the point it could predict means to prove the connection between gravity and electricity with experimentation and the development of devices utilizing this connection. Mathematically, the theory was far too complex and mathematically intensive to even hope of forming a complete version in which all variables and possibilities were worked out, but for specific cases, when the equations were set up with the right boundary conditions, it was entirely capable of predicting results.

Even today, although we use Relativity theory, it is exceedingly complex and no one can claim to have fully worked out every permutation. Similarly, the mathematical complexity of the Unified Field theory is so tremendous, any interpretation of its mathematical formula in a way which resolves differences between all the various divisions in physics, will remain for some time, utterly unknowable. However, what we find and point out here, is the Unified Field theory was completed and worked out to the point it was capable of providing solutions and practical applications. Albert Einstein felt he had solved the problem.

We find though in later investigations of his theory, despite the mathematical certainty of the equations containing both "gravitational and electrical terms in a way that defies separation" they express difficulty determining how the unified theory applied to quantum theory and which experimental facts would demonstrate the nature of this interaction of gravitation and electricity.

"At the Beginning of 1929, Einstein published his Unified Field theory of gravitation and electromagnetism, based on the concept of parallelism at a distance with respect to four orthogonal vectors of reference. Levi-Civita discards this concept and uses Ricci's coefficients of rotation. This is termed a simplified presentation of Einstein's theory, but it really differs from it in one important respect. It is perhaps more elegant than Einstein's work, and obtains Maxwell's electromagnetic equations and the gravitational equations of the older relativity theory exactly, whereas Einstein now obtains these only as first order approximations. The fact that Einstein's new equations, in their exact form, contain both gravitational and electrical terms in a way that defies separation, however inconvenient it may be mathematically, is yet the most attractive feature from the physical point of view, as it may possibly lead to the discovery of new experimental facts on the interaction of gravitation and electricity. Up to the present, in spite of improvements in the mathematical presentation of Einstein's work, little progress has been made on the physical side, and the problem of incorporating the quantum theory with relativity remains still unsolved." - H.T.H.P from A simplified Presentation of Einstein's Unified Field Equations. Nature, No. 3161, Vol 125. May 31, 1930.

At the time though, more forthcoming information and explanation was withheld and the deeper implications were not publicly discussed. The established science of the time, struck off down the convoluted road of quantum theory and Albert Einstein's Unified Field theory was quickly forgotten or considered irrelevant. On top of this, after seeing how his Energy mass Equivalence theorem quickly led to the production of a weapon of mass destruction, Albert Einstein had little confidence in mankind's ability to use his even greater theory of unification for good. Einstein knew the significance of his discovery, but had personal discipline and honor enough to withdraw his Unified theory and no published reason is given for this withdrawal, save that Einstein was "not satisfied" with it. This despite his previous expression of joy at his success and his certainty of the validity of the theory. Einstein himself is the one who withdrew the theory and said it was incomplete. He never said it was wrong.

There is a big difference between saying an idea is incomplete and saying it was wrong. We can say relativity theory is incomplete, as it does not explain quantum mechanics, but relativity is entirely correct and useful as far as it goes. The part of relativity which is complete, works just fine. The Unified Field theory may have been "incomplete" as well, but this does not in any way imply it did not work or solve, what it intended to solve. Only through sincere effort to re-investigate this theory and its direction can we hope to find what was lost. We should carefully revisit the ideas of including quantum theory within the context of the Unified Field theory as physics seems to have disregarded an important piece of the puzzle.

Beyond the Unified Field as a Theory

Having discussed Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity and the Unified Field theory what can we say? First, we must say the average individual has no hope of understanding the complex mathematics divulged within either of these theories. Even for Relativity, utilizing the mathematics requires setting very specific boundaries and limitations upon the mathematical field equations for them to produce meaningful results, as to fully write out, let alone work out the entire field equations is a feat unto itself. The reality is, there are only a few extremely advanced mathematicians in the world who would have the skill, understanding, time or energy to delve completely into the mathematics of Einsteins Unified Field theory. Even fewer who would posses the additional knowledge to apply any practical experiments from those mathematics.

Thus the average individual or armchair physicist has little hope of solving the mathematics of the Unified Field theory. Yet, despite not being able to completely grasp the mathematics, the average individual is not incapable of some grasp of the Unified Field theory. For such a theory, despite the complex mathematics required to describe it, may be much more foundational and elementary then we have been led to believe. No one can be certain there is not a way to envision the Unified Field in an uncomplicated, practical manner. Nor are we certain there may not be ways to apply the precepts and concepts of the Unified Field theory towards practical experiments and understanding in our lives. Perhaps we can find a physical, experimental verification of the Unified Field theories mathematical connection between "gravity and electricity".

We can approach an understanding of the Unified Field theory entirely outside the mathematics, looking at the Unified Field from a much more basic perspective. Even if we just consider the name Albert Einstein chose for his theory, we can find useful insight into what the theory was and represents. A Unified Field is one field which unifies the concept of all fields. We can take this idea itself, of there being One Field or a Unification of Fields and consider this concept deeply and thoroughly.

We should realize, the unification of gravity and electricity, was completely successful within the Unified Field theory. Where problems arose, was when one attempted to explain quantum theory within Unified Field theory. This is not unlike the current problem with relativity and quantum theory, being incompatible. It is not that such a solution is not possible, only that no one could determine it.

We can ask broad general questions such as, "What nature would this one field or Unified Field have?", "What relationships would the Unified Field have to the other fields and forces we know?", "Would there be any other references, real world examples, natural processes, or simple demonstrations of the principles and properties of the Unified Field?", and most importantly "Can we devise experiments or even find existing experiments which demonstrate or point towards the reality of the Unified Field's existence?"

A Unified Field Theory is not just a mathematical physics theory but is a theory which should really explain and apply to everything. They call such theories, Theories of Everything or Grand Theories of Everything, because their implications are so vast and far reaching. Such a theory is not just a theory connecting the physical and mathematical ideas of Gravity and Electromagnetic fields, but it would have biological, religious, social, and even spiritual connotations as well. For all these concepts are within the Universe and thus touched by a theory which hopes to describe the function of the Universe. Within a Unified Field Theory, no fields of science are untouched. A true Unified Field Theory has galactic/molecular scope, in that it applies to all scales from the largest galaxies and clusters of galaxies to the smallest microscopic components of matter.

If such a Unified Field exists, we should find examples and indications of its existence everywhere in reality, in nature, in biology and throughout all fields of science. We should find inventions, papers, discussions and experiments demonstrating this connection between gravity and electricity, which already exist and were already discovered or applied. The scientists making these discoveries may not have even known what they found, but we can revisit such works looking for this evidence of a real, physical connection between electricity and gravity. For even though a theory may be mathematically complex, we may find basic demonstrations, feasible experiments and straightforward apparatus which shows us how to apply its precepts. Knowing the Unified Field exists, knowing a connection between gravity and electricity exists, is half the battle so to speak.

The purpose of this section was to demonstrate, Albert Einstein was certain the problem of unification between gravity and electricity was solved. Einstein was confident a unification between Gravity and Electricity existed. He successfully created, in his own words, unitary field laws for gravitation and electro-magnetism. Albert Einstein was confident the concept of a Unified Field worked to describe this unification, but there was little publicly disclosed effort to demonstrate the reality and physical application of this unification. Albert Einstein was confident he had worked out the fundamental mathematical complexities of the Unified Field theory, but we did not perform any experimental investigations to demonstrate how the unified theory could be applied. It is up to us now, to determine if the ordinary person can understand and apply the ideas of the Unified Field to physical reality, even when the mathematics is beyond them.

We should never forget mathematics and physics is only a model of reality, not the reality itself. Knowing Albert Einstein was confident in the existence of the Unified Field and was certain he mathematically modelled its operation, should be evidence enough of the reality such a Unification of Fields exists. What we need now, is physical evidence of this connection. Remarkably, when we accept the existence of the Unified Field theory, when we accept the existence of a connection between gravity and electricity, and start actually looking for physical, real evidence of this connection, we DO discover an astounding and overwhelming amount of collaborating evidence.

We can bring the Unified Field concept out of the realm of an obscure, complex, mathematical, theoretical model, into a relatable and understandable reality. When we simply accept unification exists, we start to find innumerable, practical examples of the principles of the Unified Field theory. We find we can grasp, understand and even engineer and utilize these unifying principles.

One should understand at the very heart of the idea of Unification, is the idea of simplifying our understanding of the Universe within which we exist. When Albert Einstein claims to have solved the concept of Unification, he is confirming such a simplification exists. Unification is simplification. We can understand the Universe.

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality. - Albert Einstein

A Unified "Field of Force"

"I know that most men, including those at ease with problems of the greatest complexity, can seldom accept even the simplest and most obvious truth, if it be such as would oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions which they have delighted in explaining to colleagues, which they have proudly taught to others, and which they have woven, thread by thread, into the fabric of their lives" - Leo Tolstoy

As stated previously, mathematics and theories are all only models of reality. They can be used to efficiently predict events and observations but care must be taken not to loose oneself entirely in the mathematics and begin taking the mathematics as the reality over reality itself. When the mathematics becomes overly complicated and abstract it fails, because the ability to visualize the concepts, devise practical applications and provide real demonstrations becomes lost. The reality the theories attempt to represent and model is lost in innumerable papers and theories, proposing this or theorizing that new perspective or new idea, so many that any hope to find the connections, the common elements, the grain of truth which runs through it all becomes buried and lost. Any of hope of simplification in such a vast conglomeration of information is lost. In order to ever hope of making any sense of it all, we must find this common thread, the recurring element, to construct unification and condense the knowledge.

It should always be remembered the goal of science is to understand our reality. If all we have is complex mathematics none but a few can comprehend, this does nothing for the broader dissemination of knowledge and understanding. Albert Einstein was attempting to give himself and others a simpler understanding of the world, not some incredibly abstract mathematical construction no-one but himself could understand. Other powerful minds, like Nikola Tesla, worked to improve the condition of humanity, and did so, without writing hundreds of papers and introducing convoluted mathematical formula. True science is not about personal wealth, serving some self centered goal of popularity and self promotion, but about childlike curiosity to know more about the world in which we live. Science is about discovering knowledge which can improve the state of humanity, to benefit the greater good, to improve all of civilization. This is the true purpose of science which seems lost on so many today.

Many today fail at understanding, because they are approaching the problem with the wrong goal in mind. For many, it is all about the promotion of MY great theory which will win ME the noble prize and guarantee I have a place in the history books. For many, it is not about the solutions or benefits that theory represents. Any unifying solution should bring humanity together, should help people understand what life is all about. No one seems to want to find a solution, simply for the sake of finding the solution and sharing it with the world.

Thus this document seeks to demonstrate the universal connection, seeks to find the simplest answer which solves the greatest number of problems, because the potential benefits to humankind are absolutely unfathomable. Our goal is unification rather than separation, condensation of knowledge rather than division, reduction of theory rather than introduction of new theory. We seek the common element, a thread which runs through everything, the most straightforward, far reaching solution which solves the greatest number of problems. Further we see the need to present this idea, not by utilizing pages of uncomprehensible mathematics but real world examples, clear visualizations, previous art, and experimental demonstration. Let those more advanced in mathematics develop the formulas and physical theories which model these concepts, while we ourselves stay grounded upon the idea of a simple, unification of the fields and forces of the Universe.

Can we sort through the immense pile of current knowledge and theory, and find a common element which ties everything together? Can we find the important piece of this puzzle which allows us to start connecting it all together? Can we entertain not only the idea of a unifying solution, but that it is actually a simple solution? Can we reach into the haystack and pull out the needle?

The Goal of the Unified Field Theory

The theories of Albert Einstein and confirmations of other scientists lay down a framework within which we can understand the Unified Field theory and its implications. There exists direct, observable, real world applications and examples of a unified nature to our Universe. Although many physicists currently disagree, there exists considerable evidence to support the fact that Albert Einstein did indeed produce a completed form of his "Unified Field Theory For Gravitation and Electricity." as discussed in the Unified Field Theory section of this document. Perhaps the exact mathematical proof was not entirely worked out ( or we would say, not published ), but it was worked out to the point where Einstein himself considered it successful, it predicted observations and further it suggested practical experiments and real world application. That is, Albert Einstein's Unified Field theory, although today considered incomplete, was complete enough to suggest the possibility of a mechanism for mankind to control gravity using electromagnetic fields.

It has been ascertained one of the motivating factors for Albert Einstein's work on the Unified Field Theory was for his desire to develop some framework within which an advanced space propulsion system could be realized, especially a system which could overcome gravity or allow some means of exploring over vast interstellar distances. Thus Einstein was interested in the possibility of using electromagnetic fields to counter the force of gravity. The Unified Theory would lay down the mechanism and means by which such gravity control and ultimately new forms of space propulsion could be developed. A discover which would have set mankind on an entirely different space exploration path than the one we follow today.

At the time Einstein was working on these theories, we had yet to develop any means to explore space at all, rockets did not exist as a viable space technology when Relativity theory was released. It was not until after Relativity and Einsteins early work on the Unified Field Theory that the Germans began developed the V-2 rocket as the predecessor to modern space flight. The very first space satellite, Sputnik1, was not launched into orbit until 1957, many decades after the release of Relativity and Einstein's work on unification. Thus Einstein had early motivations to develop a better understanding of gravity so that we could master and control it, in order for mankind to begin exploring outer space. He legitimately felt there may be a way to use electromagnetic forces to either eliminate, overcome, produce or reduce the effects of the gravitational field.

One of Einstein's famous thought experiments questioned how exactly an electron can traverse immense distances both within and between atoms at such incredible velocities. In an electrical current, electrons were thought to move along the wire and with the discovery of quantum jumps of energy within atoms, electrons were thought to jump from one energy level to another almost instantaneously. Einstein's though experiment considered this motion on a macroscopic scale, which would be akin to our Earth traversing the distance to another solar system or jumping almost instantaneously to a new orbit around the Sun. Indeed within relativity it is impossible for any amount of electric forces to accelerate even the small mass of the electron to velocities near the speed of light.

We must also remember, at this time scientists were aware of only three fundamental fields of force in the Universe, the electric force, the magnetic force and the gravitational force. We could argue even today, these remain the primary or most fundamental forces defining our reality. At the time Einstein was developing the Unified Field theory, we were mastering the application of electromagnetic fields using the newly formulated relationship between the electric field and the magnetic field as unified in Maxwell's equations. It was entirely logical to consider there may be a similar relationship between gravity and the electromagnetic field, as there was between electricity and magnetism. This was the foundational precept for the pursuit of the Unified Field Theory.

We knew at the time, we could use a changing electric field to cause a magnetic field and the reverse was true. We could also use a changing magnetic field to produce an electric field. This was essentially a unification of the forces of electricity and magnetism, into one broader, simpler understanding. It was thus not a great leap to consider the possibility of some similar relationship between gravity and electromagnetism. Where maybe a changing electromagnetic field could produce a gravitational field, or a changing gravitational field could produce an electromagnetic field. Thus the gravitational field could be considered to be the third side of a triangular relationship where the electric field and the magnetic field were the other two sides. If such a relationship existed, its potential application could provide the means to control gravity.

To simplify, it is readily apparent to anyone, they can wrap some iron in a coil of wire, pass an electric current through that wire, and get a magnetic field. This magnetic field is in turn capable of attracting small bits of metal to it or redirecting the orientation of other magnets like a magnetic compass. We too can create a static electric charge and attract bits of material to it, like attracting bits of paper with a balloon which was rubbed upon ones head. Thus, we see direct evidence of the electric and magnetic forces in our reality, we can experience them, produce them at will and control them.

However, although we have direct experience with the force of gravity, when we trip and fall or throw object into the air, we do not have any ready means at our disposal to produce or control gravity at will. Is there some combination of electric and magnetic effects, which would allow us to also produce and control gravity at will? This is the real, physical realization which the Unified Field theory represents. The Unified Field theory can give us a simple practical explanation as to how to use the electromagnetic field, to control gravity.

We were at the time Einstein was considering these ideas, still in the midst of developing our electric grid, installing new electric motors, building huge electric generating plants and power distribution system and creating numerous applications and uses for the electromagnetic field. We were becoming very familiar with practical ways to physically engineer and develop real world apparatus and machinery using electromagnetic field physics, including radio and even radar was developed during this time. It was and still is, logical to consider there would be a connection by which we could utilize electromagnetic fields to also alter gravitational fields in some manner. Being that we have the technical expertise to manipulate electromagnetic fields this was the only method which provides any real world framework within which gravitational manipulation could even be accomplished.

If gravity can truly be over come, the only practical, engineerable method to do so is going to have to involve electromagnetic means regardless. What other forces could we to work with? We surely cannot build a purely mechanical or steam powered gravitational drive and it is highly improbable we will ever develop any means to use 'quantum mechanics" or the strong or weak forces, for gravity manipulation. Gravity manipulation or control would have to utilize electric and/or magnetic fields in some way. There is really no other forces we can control for this purpose.

Even today modern theories of gravity or Space/Time manipulation propose ridiculous concepts like the generation of negative energy, giant rotating masses or suggest methods of gravity propulsion without even defining some practical method to actually engineer these fantasies of imagination. Any proposed method to manipulate gravity must be accompanied by some real practical method to engineer it and for this the only real tool we have for achieving this, is our ability to control electromagnetism. Thus somewhere within electromagnetic theory is a connection with gravity, the problem is just to determine the form this connection takes.

Back to the Foundation: Mass, Force and Acceleration

At the heart of the problem, is the understanding of mass, forces and acceleration, as first investigated most thoroughly by Sir Isaac Newton. Through Newton's investigations, humanity was given a set of simple laws and formulas from which we could predict and explain the motion of objects and bodies around us. We found the foundation of the concepts of using physics and mathematics to understand the laws and rules which govern our reality.

Nearly all of physics can be described by only five basic equation. The first of these equations, is that which describes the idea of a Force itself, Newton's law which describes force as a mass times an acceleration. We then have a formula to describe gravity as the attractive force between two masses which decreases with the square of the distance between those masses. We have a very similar formula for electric charge, which determines the force between electric charges depending upon the square of the distances between those charges. The fourth formula is an equation describing the interactions between electric fields, electric currents and magnetic fields. The fifth formula is the wave equation. Utilizing these equations nearly all the forces and actions we are aware of in everyday reality can be described in physics. Of primary interest in this discussion, is this very concept of Force itself.

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Can we revisit these ideas of force, inertia, action at a distance, Ether, fields, Space/Time and find perhaps some easier way to understand these ideas? Is there an Ether? Can we consider "force as a substance" as Faraday did? Again, can we find some common thread which helps us simplify and connect these different concepts together?

The Ether

There is still today significant debate surrounding the existence of the Ether. Let us discuss in depth what the ether was, why the concept was dropped from science and what replaced it.

We know from personal experience, waves require a medium within which to move. The wave itself transfers energy, but the underlying medium does not move along with the wave. Consider for example people doing the wave is a sports stadium. The people do not run around the stadium to create the wave. Each person just stands up and sits down as they see the person beside them stand up and sit down. From the bigger view, we see a wave moving around the stadium, when the medium( the people themselves ) are just standing up and down in place. We get a similar effect when we have a row of lights, which turn on and off in sequence. It looks as though the light is moving down the row, when in fact nothing is really moving, we just have single lights turning on and off. Even with water waves, the actual atoms of the water are merely undergoing a circular motion, which causes a wave to travel across the surface of a body of water.

Thus from our experience, it is not unfounded to question, "When light travels through empty space, what is waving, what is propagating the wave?" Modern physics proposes the electromagnetic wave propagates itself, the electric field collapses creating a magnetic field, which in turn collapses creating an electric field, so light is said to propagate without a medium due to the generation and collapse of its own fields. This explanation is blatant and utter nonsense for numerous reasons, however the concept of an all pervasive substance within which everything acts is equally nonesense. Reality is much stranger than presumed.

This idea of waves without a medium has led to innumerable new theories as too how the ether should make a reappearance and endless discussions as to its properties, creation and how returning to the concept of an ether, will 'save' physics. Let's go very seriously and deeply into the ideas of an ether, and why the concept was abandoned.

Light is a transverse wave( light can be polarized is the experimental evidence confirming this ). It is proven in physics a transverse wave can only propagate through a solid medium. However, vacuum or empty space is what we would say and by all definition the complete opposite of solid. How can empty space carry a transverse wave? Thus early scientists were certain there must be some medium with various characteristics of a solid, throughout all space, the ether.

However, to propose a solid medium throughout the Universe, which is capable of propagating transverse waves can also be shown to be utter nonsense for numerous reasons. Why would such a medium not hinder the passage of matter, especially planets, stars and Black holes. Why can we not detect such an absolute, solid medium? Proponents for the Ether often cite the Michelson-Morley experiment as the primary evidence disproving the existence of the ether and how due to this or that difference in their approach they can demonstrate why this experiment failed to detect the ether.

The Michelson-Morley experiment is only the most well known experiment discussed to disprove the notion of the ether, but it is not the sole and only evidence against the idea of an ether. We can consider the numerous others who speculated upon and proposed solutions to the problem of the ether, before we can truly understand the difficulty of having an ether, and why the Michelson-Morley experiment is not the only reason to reject the ideas of an ether.

For we herein fully agree there is no ether throughout all space, yet we disagree with the notion of waves propagating without a medium. How puzzling. There is a solution which elegantly solves both of these contradictions, of which this entire work is based. Let us further define the problem and current state of the Ether.

We can find an excellent discussion and elaboration on the problems of the ether from Max Born.

Below from "Einstein's Theory of Relativity" by Max Born 1965 Dover Publications, revised and expanded from original English translation in 1924. Original was in 1920 in German.

It was obvious, and still is today, that "The Ether was necessarily a kind of elastic solid, for it is only in such a substance that mechanical transverse waves can occur ( p 108 )" Thus the possible constitution of the ether was considered in great detail. We had known equations for propagation of waves through solid mediums, which can be related to the forces on mass( pf ) related to their density( pb ). All laws of contiguous action in theoretical physics are of this type, even gravitational theory.

Thus it was discussed what constitution is required for the ether to behave in the way we require for light to propagate within it. "If we allow pb to approach zero or drop it entirely, so that the density of mass is extremely small, then displacements occur immediately between adjacent particles. Thus we really have the transmission of a force with infinite velocity, a true action at a distance. Nevertheless, the law of pf=0 appears in the form of a differential equation as a contiguous action. (p 113 )" and further "the concept of b is the relation of elastic rigidity over inertial resistance and determines the velocity of a wave in such a medium. (p114 )" We can further limit our considerations due to the known velocity of light so that "...it follow that c^2 = elastic rigidity / inertial resistance or c = square root of elastic rigidity / inertial resistance ( p115 )"

As we have previously mentioned, "in liquids and gases there is no elastic resistance to the lateral displacement of the particles, but only to the change of volume, e.e., compressions and rarefactions. Hence only longitudinal waves can propagate themselves in such substances( p115 )" and thus we must ask ourselves "Now what properties are to be ascribed to this elastic ether?....either that the elastic rigidity be very great or that the density of the mass be very small, or that both conditions hold simultaneously.... experiment cannot decide whether the vibrations of polarized light are parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polarization....( p 116 )"

We immediately run into some issues which are not easy to resolve as is explained further, "One obvious objection to the hypothesis of an elastic ether arises from the necessity of ascribing to it the great rigidity it must have to account for the high velocity of waves. Such a substance would necessarily offer resistance to the motion of heavenly bodies, particularly to that of the planets. ( p116 )" Many have considered this very problem, and have often come up with a very similar solution, so this is not new nor remarkable and has been considered at length. "Stokes ( 1845 ) tried to dispose of this objection by remarking that the concept of solidity of a body is in some way relative.( p 117) like pitch, a non-Newtonian solid." and thus as has been considered "Therefore the ether may function for light as an elastic solid and yet give way completely to the motion of the planets." but this supposed solution is not as clean an answer as we would like and under closer mathematical examination many failings are encountered, primarily as stated "( this leads to issues with velocities and wave types when waves refract at the boundary between two media )( p117 )" So the problem with the ether as a type of non-Newtonian solid is not viable.

Further, mathematical and speculative treatments were considered. "MacCullagh 1839 proposed an ether possessed of the property of opposing rotational motions of the neighbors around the central particle.. which was the ... forerunner of the electromagnetic theory of light.( p117 )" and this was discussed and considered at great length. "although the concept of displacement of electric charge are rendered certain for matter and molecules, the idea of a displacement in a free ether is purely hypothetical. there was considerable effort to find the mechanical model for the constitution of the ether.( p190 )"

Even radical departure from this concept of a solid, non-Newtonian material, although giving improved solutions did not solve the problems, "The rotational character of the relationship between electric currents and magnetic fields, and its reciprocal character, suggests that we regard the electric state of the ether as a linear displacement, the magnetic state as a rotation about an axis, or conversely. (p190 )" and it was considered not as transverse displacements but rotational torsions "In this way we arrive at ideas that are related to MacCullagh's ether theory. According to this the ether was not to generate elastic resistances against distortions in the ordinary sense, but resistances against the absolute rotation of its elements of volume." We find here the little clue as to the true solution, where a rotational resistance and considering the fields as characteristics of the ether, begins to appear.

Eventually, despite huge effort to make it work, no solution to the constitution of the ether giving the results required could be attained. It was not the failure of the Michelson-Morley experiment which ended the idea of an ether, but this inability to mathematically describe the properties of the ether to explain the observations. Thus the concept of a mechanical ether was dropped, "..the utter failure and even the impossibility of resolving a mechanical explanation for the ether and thus the concept was dropped entirely in order for physics to proceed. (p191 )"

From this point on, physics dispensed with use of the ether as the medium for the propagation of light. The physicists concluded, "The state of the ether may be described by two directed magnitudes, which bear the names electric and magnetic strength of field, E and H, and whose changes in space and time are connected by Maxwell's equations. Under certain circumstances such an ether phenomenon produces mechanical, thermal, and chemical actions in matter that are capable of being observed. Everything that goes beyond these assertions is superfluous hypothesis and fancy."!!! ( p192 )" Except we would question here whether it is "superfluous and fancy" to point out "the state of the ether" is three dimensional and it is impossible to describe a three dimensional state with only "two directed magnitudes".

Thus we find ourselves in the predicament we are today, in which we have a wave propagating without a medium. Physics has resorted to considering the fields themselves as their own medium, like a car creating the road upon which it travels in front of it and tearing it up as it goes behind.

There were still attempts to find some rational mechanism for this process which was more palatable to the human mind, "... J.J. Thomson to infer that the inertia of a body must be increased by an electric charge which is imparted to it ( p210 )" and that "Hence the idea occurs that the electron has, perhaps, no "ordinary" mass at all, but is nothing other than an "atom of electricity," and that its mass is entirely electromagnetic in origin.( p211)" and evidence was found to support this notion, ".. on proceeding to higher velocities, a decrease of charge/electron mass ratio was found. (p212 )" That is they found that mass somehow increased with velocity approaching c which supported this idea of electron's not having "ordinary" mass. Here we see the attempted introduction of additional relationships of the electromagnetic fields to mass and inertia, the introduction of additional characteristics to make the whole idea rational and palatable.

Thus it was proposed that, "mass as the measure of the inertial persistence would no longer be a primary phenomenon as it is in elementary mechanics, but as a secondary consequence of the structure of the ether. ( p213 )" and that "Newton's absolute space, which is defined only by the mechanical law of inertia, becomes superfluous; its part is taken over by the ether whose electromagnetic properties are well known ( p213 )". Then the very idea upon which they touched, gets lost and the ether becomes only electromagnetic properties.

Thus it became possible for the electromagnetic fields themselves to be fields within the ether, "it seemed at this time there was the real possibility of forming a uniform physical picture of the world, which would reduce all forms of energy, including mechanical inertia to the same root, to the electromagnetic field in the ether. Only one form of energy , gravitation, seemed still to remain outside the system; yet it could be hoped that that, too, would allow itself to be interpreted as an action of the ether." Here they realize they excluded gravity from this concept, a state which remains to this day, yet they loosely consider the ideas of gravity and inertia as being an action of their ether, but only as a relationship to the electromagnetic field properties.

And it was herein where came the infamous Michelson-Morley Experiment of which all ether proponents claim as the deciding experiment against the existence of an ether, but it was not the only nail in the coffin, as we saw from the previous inability to ascribe the true mechanical properties of the ether and that impossibility. We cannot discount the tremendous effort of many brilliant minds in their attempt to ascertain the properties of the magical ether, yet all failed.

Finally, we came to the following conclusions and final statements in the book regarding the existence of an ether. "From now on ether as a substance vanishes from theory. In its place we have the electromagnetic field as a mathematical device for conveniently describing processes in matter and their relationships.* ( p224 )" However, there is one important and extremely relevant footnote to this entire discussion of the ether, from Albert Einstein himself;

Einstein in later years proposed calling empty space equipped with gravitational and electromagnetic fields the "ether", whereby, however, this word is not to denote a substance with its traditional attributes. Thus in the "ether," there are to be no determinable points, and it is meaningless to speak of motion relative to the "ether." Such a use of the word "ether" is of course admissible, and when once it has been sanctioned by usage in this way, probably quite convenient.

It is upon this final, important concept of the Ether as "empty space equipped with gravitational and electromagnetic fields" this current work focuses most intention. We find it is indeed very convenient and even we might say, eye opening and mind clearing to think of the ether in this way, as due to the fields in empty space. The ether is not a substance through which the electromagnetic field propagates, but seems to be tied to the idea of fields themselves. In this concept, the fields are the Ether.

We know the electric charge and magnetism are fields, but logically for them to propagate as waves, we must expect some kind of medium or ether upon which these waves move for our sanity to be restored. We know empty space has properties, such as permeability and permittivity, which limit the velocity of the electromagnetic waves. It is obvious and apparent, these properties of permeability and permittivity which limit the velocity of the electromagnetic field propagation, cannot be inherent in the fields themselves. These properties must exist in something external to the fields, external to the waves. For how could a field limit itself thusly, there must be something relative to the field to thusly limit its effect, to cause it to rebound or oppose its energy. However, as explained above, we cannot think of the ether as an ocean or medium existing throughout all of space, through which things move relative to the ether or there are any determinable points. Thus the idea of some physical medium or ether does not represent reality either.

Thus there is a unique and strange situation here. We need something like an ether which can have properties which limit the velocity of the electromagnetic waves, but this something does not physically exist throughout all space. How puzzling.

As Einstein suggests, it is quite convenient to consider the ether as a kind of field in and of itself, which can propagate forces of fields. The difficulty in recognizing the solution to this puzzle, seems to come from considering the primary field propagating through the ether, as either gravitational or electromagnetic. Could there not be and is it not logical, to consider the possible existence of a more fundamental field, which is common to both the gravitational and electromagnetic fields? Within such a concept, there is no static or absolute "ether" upon which fields oscillate, but the "ether" only comes into existence, when we have some change in motion or energy in space.

We repeat this notion or concept of reducing all forms of energy, including mechanical inertia to the same root

This fundamental field could very well behave as the Ether, but being a field, it in itself would likely be immaterial, have wave properties and distinct characteristics. This fundamental field would exist 'a priori' to the gravitational, electric and magnetic fields, as the common origin of all fields and they would all by extension then be related.

This is exactly the very idea behind Einstein's Unified Field theory, a common, single or one field, from which the other fields owe their existence.

We refer again to the following quote from Michael Faraday, the originator of the very concept of a magnetic field.

I have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in common I believe with many other lovers of natural knowledge, that the various forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest have one common origin - Michael Faraday. Experimental Researches in Electricity Vol.3 1855

Electromagnetic Propagation of Momentum

We will here discuss in significant detail the relationship between electromagnetic fields and momentum.

Through experimentation, we know the transfer of momentum and thus physical forces takes time and appears to be limited to the speed of light just like the propagation of electromagnetic wave do. When two solid objects collide, or even multiple solid object collide, like in Newton's Cradle, it takes time for the transfer of momentum through each object to the next. Newton thought the transfer of gravitational field was instantaneous, but we now consider gravitational field to propagate at the speed of light as well. If the transfer of momentum and force lies under similar propagation constraints as electromagnetic fields, is it possible there are other similarities?

Newton’s Cradle Doesn’t Work the Way You Think - The Action Lab on YouTube

We would like to begin this complicated discussion by here referring back to an answer to the question in the established physics section, which asked, "Explain why Fb = qv x B?" or more specifically, "Why is the force on a moving charge perpendicular to the electric field and perpendicular to the magnetic field?" as discussed in the section on established physics. The answer to this question is important to understand the relationship of momentum to electromagnetic fields.

The answer to these questions as we recall is, It is the motion or change of motion of charged particles which create electromagnetic energy. The actual motion of the charges, creates electromagnetic fields which propagate perpendicular to that motion. The motion itself, is always perpendicular to the electromagnetic fields related to that motion. The charged particle may move back and forth in one direction, but this causes a change in electric field, which extends into space in a direction perpendicular to that motion. The magnetic field created by this motion and the electric field, will thus be perpendicular to both of these.

Thus we find the motion of bodies, especially charged bodies or we would even say the charges which make up bodies, to be significant to understanding electromagnetic fields of force. Let us investigate this property of electromagnetic fields of force and the energy they mediate in much greater detail. To do so we will reference the Richard Feynman Lectures on Physics, Volume two, section 17.4, which discuss in great detail the concept of Electromagnetic Momentum.

Examples of Electromagnetic Propagation of Momentum

We previously discussed the transfer of momentum from electromagnetic energy. To further our understanding and to establish the deep significance of this concept, we will here provide numerous examples of this concept which occur in reality. We can demonstrate such a concept in reality, other than through simple diagrams showing the direction of energy transfer for simple electromagnetic circuits.

If there is further doubt of a relationship between momentum of electromagnetic fields and the Poynting Vector, we need only refer to back to this quote.
"There is an important theorem in mechanics which is this: whenever there is a flow of energy in any circumstance at all (field energy or any other kind of energy), the energy flowing through a unit area per unit time, when multiplied by 1/c2 , is equal to the momentum per unit volume in the space. In the special case of electrodynamics, this theorem gives the result that
g is 1/c2 times the Poynting vector:
g = (1/c^2) x S
So the Poynting vector gives not only energy flow but, if you divide by c2 , also the momentum density. " - Richard Feynman. The Fenyman lectures 27-6;

If electromagnetic fields can propagate momentum we should be able to demonstrate this. Of course such demonstrations exist and are well known. We have well established knowledge for creating and manipulating electric and magnetic fields, utilizing the Lorentz equation, as electric motors and electric generators. We convert electromagnetic fields to motion in electric motors and we convert motion into electromagnetic fields with generators. It is logical to consider constructing some apparatus which demonstrates the ability of alternating electromagnetic fields, as we see in electromagnetic waves like light, to produce accelerating forces upon some medium. We would see in such a device a macroscopic real representation of the ability of electromagnetic fields to directly convey momentum.

There is a great deal of additional evidence for the momentum which is carried with electromagnetic fields and the ability of this electromagnetic momentum to "physically" act upon matter. These concepts although possibly unfamiliar to the reader, are well established in physics. We will demonstrate additional cases of the real practical application of electromagnetic momentum.

This quote discusses the truly remarkable power of the momentum of electromagnetic fields, as it is applied in the operation of a nuclear weapon.

"In January of 1951, all design problems were solved by the single unexpected innovation of radiation implosion. Rarely in the history of technology has such a seemingly daunting problem turned out to have such a nifty solution. Stanislav Ulam’s idea of imploding the entire secondary, plus Teller’s idea to do the job with radiation, changed everything. Fusion didn’t need to propagate; it could be forced. To use x-rays from an exploding nuclear bomb to envelop and highly compress another more powerful nuclear bomb was immensely clever, and for nearly three decades completely unknown to the general public. It was not, however unknown to bomb designers in Russia, Britain, France, and China, who built H-bombs during this period.

The notion that x-rays could move solid objects with the force of thousands of tons of dynamite was beyond the grasp of the science fiction writers of the time.

It was quite satisfying to the privileged few who knew about it, especially to “cleared” politicians who were members of this new nuclear priesthood. Radiation implosion became the cornerstone of the Cold War temple of secrecy, and the secret password to its inner sanctum. In engineering terms, this weird and wonderful secret allowed for the exploitation of several known features of nuclear bomb materials which heretofore had eluded practical application. " - Born Secret - Federation of American Scientists by H Morland, 2005. CARDOZO LAW REVIEW, VOL 26, NO 4, MARCH 2005, PP. 1401-8. 1401. BORN SECRET.

Further reference to the reality of electromagnetic momentum. Radiation Implosion - Wikipedia

We find additional evidence for this mechanism to be true, in the field of space propulsion, in the development of Solar Sails. A solar sail or light sail would be a satellite or space probe which unfurls a large area of foil or material to act as a sail to catch the "light" from the sun and thus use the momentum of this light to propel itself. Although this thrust is very low, for a very small and light spacecraft exposed to this thrust over a long period of time, its resultant velocity could become quite high.

For a LightSail spacecraft with a sail of total area of 32 m^2 and a total mass of 5.0 kg. Near the Earth if it was exposed to light from the Sun for 1 year, it could reach a velocity of nearly 6600 km/h. Utilizing only the forces of light shining on it from the Sun, a LightSail can reach very high velocities.

The Lightsail 2

This concept of light being able to apply pressure is well known and had been studied at length, even for the purposes of building a Photon Rocket. It is interesting the physicists chose to call this effect, "Radiation Pressure" as this is exactly what we are implying it is. The electromagnetic field is related to the concept of pressure more fundamentally than the scientists realize as we will discuss shortly.

Radiation Pressure - from Wikipedia

We find even more additional evidence demonstrating the reality of electromagnetic fields carrying momentum and being able to impart that momentum to physical matter, in the "photoelectric" effect. This is the case where light impinging on metal, can cause electrons to be ejected. The force of momentum acting upon the electrons of the atoms, imparted them with additional kinetic energy sufficient for them to escape or break their attraction to the atom of which they were apart. The light is transferring a physical force to the mass of the electron.

Photoelectric Effect - Byjus.com

The Photomolecular Effect - The PoytningVector.substack.com. It has been discovered, light can even cause the evaporation of a water molecule directly through an effect similar to the photoelectric effect. The light was determined to not be heating the water causing it to be evaporated, but it was giving the molecule sufficient energy directly for it to break the molecular bonds with its neighbors and be ejected.

One may at this point question, why is this discussion so interested in the momentum of electromagnetic fields, when we are after a unification between gravity and electromagnetism. Surely, Albert Einstein was not aware of this concept of electromagnetic momentum, the Poynting Vector and the Lorentz force connection. However, what we find is not only was Einstein aware of this connection, but that he was intimately aware of it. Remarkably, Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard themselves built just a device, called the magnetohydrodynamic "Alternating Current Conduction Pump", which very effectively demonstrates that alternating electromagnetic fields can produce linear motion in a medium.

Figure 1
Alternating Electromagnetic Field


Figure 2
Plot of Lorentz Force of an Alternating Electromagnetic Field


Figure 3
Rotating Electromagnetic Field and Resulting Momentum Force

A very counter-intuitive point we must understand regarding electromagnetic fields and their associated momentum is the following:

When the Vector E( Electric ) field reverses, the vector B( Magnetic ) field does too, and the force is again in the same direction. - From: Momentum and Radiation Pressure - Phys.Libretexts.org.

See Figure 1 which shows a simple animation of this important point. We would tend to think, because the electric field and magnetic fields are oscillating or alternating, the resulting momentum or Lorentz force would also be alternating, but this is not the case.

In reality, the electric and magnetic fields can both flip or reverse, but the Lorentz force stays in the same direction. The animation in Figure 1 shows this visually, that due to the orientation of these three forces in space, two can alternate back and forth or oscillate, while the third just remains in the same direction. We can show this relationship on three axis, as in Figure 2. We should also note, that this alternation or oscillation, is just another way of describing rotation, thus the example in Figure 3 is an identical situation. Rotation plotted on an axis, traces a sinusoidal path, as in Figure 4, which is the same as our alternating fields we get from alternating current. Thus all three of these diagrams, Figure 1, 2 and 3 are equivalent.

Figure 4
Circular Motion Traced to A Sinusoidal Wave

We can even consider the case where the electromagnetic fields rotate, as this is entirely similar to the case where the electromagnetic fields alternate. We know an alternating wave, traces a sinusoidal path. We also know a point on a rotating body, can trace a similar sinusoidal path. The two motions are related and equivalent. We see in the following diagram, how the Lorentz force produced from a rotating electromagnetic field, is always in the same direction. Although the electromagnetic fields vibrate, alternate or rotate, the direction of the Lorentz force is unchanged.

Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard knew this relationship intimately. They utilized it to design and construct their "Alternating Current Conduction Pump". Although the pump is powered with alternating electric power, it produces a unidirectional force upon the liquid it is pumping. This is without any rectification or change of the alternating power to make it direct current. It works simply by understanding the concept that alternating electromagnetic fields, can produce linear forces or momentum.

Figure 5
Alternating Current Conduction Pump
Original image credit,"The Handbook of Electromagnetic Pump Technology",by Richard S. Baker and Manuel J. Tessier.Elsevier.

As shown by the magnetohydrodynamic alternating current conduction pump, Figure 5, even though an electromagnetic field is an alternating oscillation, it can produce unidirectional, pulsing forces of acceleration. Although this force pulses, the pulses are in the same direction. One can readily demonstrate this to themselves using the right hand rule for electromagnetic fields. If the direction of both the magnetic and electric fields are switched, the resultant force will be in the same direction. Counter intuitive but true nonetheless. We can see a simple demonstration of this concept, in Figure 1 and Figure 3, although the fields are alternating or rotating, the resulting Lorentz force remains in the same direction. Although the electromagnetic fields in this pump are alternating, the resulting Lorentz force is always in the same direction.

An article about Leo Szilard who worked with Albert Einstein to develop the Alternating Current electromagnetic pump. Leo Szilard the Inventor

An article discussing the Refrigerator designed to utilize this electromagnetic pump. The Einstein-Szilard Refrigerator - Invention Stories by the Smithsonian

The Einstein-Szilard Refrigeration Patent The Einstein-Szilard Refrigerator - Invention Stories by the Smithsonian

When we more closely examine the electromagnetic fields occurring in this unique pump, we find it produces the same exact relationship of electromagnetic fields to momentum as we see in propagating electromagnetic waves. The alternating current conduction pump creates electromagnetic fields which vibrate or alternate at right angles to each other but also at right angles to the direction of the resulting motion or momentum. This is word for word the description of the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

"A light wave consists of energy in the form of electric and magnetic fields. The fields vibrate at right angles to the direction of movement of the wave, and at right angles to each other."
Light - from HowStuffWorks.com

Thus we see an important correlation and connection here, between the macroscopic electromagnetic fields of the alternating current conduction pump causing forces of momentum, and the microscopic electromagnetic fields of light which have momentum. However, we see the momentum of both is calculated and considered in different ways. The momentum is calculated as the Lorentz force in the pump and in the case of light it is calculated using what we call the Poynting Vector. We find the Lorentz force of electromagnetic fields is intimately tied to the Poynting Vector of electromagnetic fields. There is an implication here, of the possibility of a more general case, for the calculation of momentum from electromagnetic fields.

It is very interesting to note the mathematical equation at the foundation of electric motors and generators, the equation utilized to calculate the forces of Magnetohydrodynamics and electrodynamics is essentially the same mathematical equation as what is used for the Poynting Vector of electromagnetic waves. You can see the the Lorentz Equation and the Poynting Vector in great detail here:

Poynting Vector - Wikipedia
Lorentz Force - Wikipedia

The situation implies there is a deeper connection here between momentum and electromagnetic fields, in a more general sense. The only significant difference between the two equations is, in the Lorentz equation is related to the charge on moving electrons or an electric current, whereas the Poynting vector is not. The Poynting Vector is applied to electromagnetic fields in free space, whereas the Lorentz equation is applied to the movement of the charge of electrons as an electric current. We can say the Poynting Vector is a more generalized or fundamental form of the Lorentz equation. If we generalize the Lorentz Equation, so that it does not depend on electron charge, but on an electric field, it becomes the Poynting Equation.

Understanding the connection between these two formula's allows us to generalize the concept of momentum from electromagnetic fields. We find we can use electromagnetic fields to produce mechanical forces and to convert mechanical forces into electromagnetic fields, at all scales. We would not be incorrect to state, that every electric or magnetic field, always has an associated component of momentum. This occurs in deep space through which electromagnetic fields propagate, in matter composed of charged particles and at the macroscopic scale of planets and machines.

When we arrange electromagnetic fields which vibrate, oscillate, co-rotate or alternate at right angles to each other, we always create a force or momentum. This situation is exactly that situation which happens with the electromagnetic fields of light. The situation is exactly the same as it happens in the Alternating Current Conduction Pump. The electromagnetic fields of both these cases, are functionality the same. The result is motion of a medium in the case of the pump and motion through the medium in the case of the electromagnetic waves. Thus here we find Albert Einstein had a very fundamental understanding of the momentum of electromagnetic waves. Thus we can see the momentum of electromagnetic radiation and light, operates in a specific manner, as demonstrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6
Relationship of Electromagnetic Fields to Momentum and Velocity of Light

We will again mention an important point, although the resulting force produced in the alternating conduction pump is unidirectional, it is not a constant or continuous force, but pulses in one direction, at the same frequency as the alternating fields. There is a point when the fields flip, there is no force, then as the fields increase, the force increases again. The "magnetohydrodynamic alternating current conduction pump" did not gain widespread application because of the vibration this pulse causes. Since the resulting force pulsated, it vibrated at double the cycle of the applied alternating current. This caused it to make a loud buzzing noise when in operation. Because this pump was so noisy, it was impractical as a pump for household use. However, it is this noisy buzzing sound which results in this pump, which provides an important clue to our fundamental problem, which we will expand upon soon.

What we need to get from all this is,
Albert Einstein's alternating current conduction pump, demonstrates in real life and proves without any doubt alternating electromagnetic fields can induce a unidirectional force or momentum on a medium.

The idea of electromagnetic fields carrying momentum is not new, Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard knew about it, as did Richard Feynman and many others. We see in these examples, electromagnetism, momentum and accelerating forces are deeply connected, the connection is real, has been documented extensively, can be practically applied and this concept was of interest and known to Albert Einstein. What we suggest here, is this concept of electromagnetic momentum is more general than we have previously considered and very important to the Unification of gravity and electromagnetism. We have demonstrated the Poynting Vector can be considered a general case of the Lorentz force, and the momentum of electromagnetic fields exists at all scales.

We will now utilize our understanding of Forces, Acceleration, Momentum, Fields the Ether and Relativity to form a path to a simpler understanding of Gravity.

A Field Carrying Physical Force

Thus far we have discussed how electromagnetic fields carry momentum. We will now extrapolate from this knowledge and consider this concept in an entirely unique way. We will show that by doing so, we get an insight into the nature of reality which has thus far remained invisible. Let us present this step by step in a manner which should be easy to grasp.

A Field Carries Physical Forces

It is quite clear, the momentum of electromagnetic fields is certainly real. It can be stated with strong conviction, there is a physical reality to the energy/momentum flow of an electromagnetic field. It has been proven this electromagnetic momentum can act upon matter with a very real force.

It is quite clear, this momentum characteristic of the electromagnetic energy, is not propagated by the electromagnetic fields themselves, as the momentum is not even propagated in the same direction as the electromagnetic fields themselves. This flow of momentum, occupies one of the axis or dimensions of space in relation to the electromagnetic fields. This momentum of electromagnetic fields is propagated by an entity represented by the Poynting Vector, which is always 90 degrees to both the electric field and the magnetic field. The energy of this momentum is itself occupying a third dimension or axis of space. The momentum energy of electromagnetic fields, occupies a dimension of space in and of itself, just like the electric field does and just like the magnetic field does.

If the electric field acts along a dimension of space, and the magnetic field acts along a dimension of space, can we not also say this energy of momentum is also acting along a dimension of space and thus is too a field in space?

It can be thus reasonably stated; The momentum energy component of electromagnetic fields, represents a field in and of itself.

What we think of as momentum, is not propagated by the electromagnetic field, it is propagated by its own field. It is a different field, a field intimately related to electromagnetic fields but is itself not electric nor magnetic. Momentum transfer, that is the physical force which momentum carries, is propagated by a unique field. There is substantial evidence for the existence of another "Field of Force", whose characteristics are that of momentum and the transfer of physical force.

A field carries physical force. There is a "Force Field".

This is the fundamental, unifying notion proposed as the heart of this entire document, that momentum flow, the transfer of physical force, can be considered to be another field. The momentum energy represents a field carrying physical force, as physically real as the electromagnetic fields. The momentum of electromagnetic energy, as defined by the Poynting Vector, represents a real field, capable of propagating momentum and mechanical force through Space. We could call this third field in the Universe, the "Field of Physical Force" or "Force Field". This "Field of Force" would be the mediator for the transfer of momentum, physical forces of acceleration and is responsible for all the physical forces we experience.

We recall, Michael Faraday chose to think of the very concept of a field, as a substance which carries force. We find here evidence for exactly this situation, in which all physical forces we experience, are carried by a field themselves. Thus the physical forces of static electric charge and the magnetic forces of static magnetic fields, may themselves even be due to a special case of distortion of this field carrying physical Force. The field carrying physical force, may even be the common origin for all forces we experience in the Universe.

"The specific features of Faraday's field concept, in its 'favourite' and most complete form, are that force is a substance, that it is the only substance and that all forces are interconvertible through various motions of the lines of force." - Nancy J. Nersessian

Of the greatest importance, this concept of a field carrying physical force, provides us the means to further build our bridge between gravity and electromagnetism. We find in this concept of a field carrying physical force, which is intimately connected with the electromagnetic field, the foundation for the idea of a Unified Field in the Universe. We see that we should not put the "gravitational field" as the third side of our triangle of fundamental forces, as many have considered, but that we should instead put "physical force" itself on that third side of the triangle. We find the relationship between the forces of nature, may be far more fundamental and elementary than we ever realized. We see our revised diagram of the interrelationship between the forces of nature in Figure 10.

Figure 10
The Three Spatial Fields

We would here point out, we have not changed any laws of physics with this explanation. We have not changed the mechanisms of electromagnetism or the propagation of force. All we have done, is to view the current explanations from a new perspective and given clarity to this additional character of the electromagnetic fields. We have simply called the momentum of electromagnetic field, for what this really represents, a field capable of carrying physical forces. We have not changed the math, have not changed the formulas, nor changed the theories, we have simply labelled them with a different perspective and propose a new way of thinking about their relationship.

We are not at all describing the existence of a new "Field" or new "Force" in the Universe, as the character of momentum in electromagnetic fields is already well established as well as all the relationships and features this implies. The only thing which is new, is to consider this already established character of electromagnetism as a field in its own right.

The only thing we must accept, is the reality of all physical forces being mediated or carried through a "Force Field". Such a concept, does not change the mathematics we have thus far used to explain these interrelationships between energy, momentum and electromagnetic field. What it does do though, is suggest other mathematical models may exist which can simplify and unify our understanding. The magnificent benefit we get from changing our perception is we gain the ability to visualize the very nature of reality in ways we did not previously consider.

We refer again to the following quote from Michael Faraday, the originator of the very concept of a magnetic field.

I have long held an opinion, almost amounting to conviction, in common I believe with many other lovers of natural knowledge, that the various forms under which the forces of matter are made manifest have one common origin - Michael Faraday. Experimental Researches in Electricity Vol.3 1855

This unifying notion of reducing all forms of energy, including mechanical inertia to the same root. Is not the concept of mechanical inertia related to these very ideas of momentum and the transfer of physical forces? Are we not describing this exact concept of reducing the forces and thus forms of energy, to a common root, where that root is the mediation of all force through a singular field which carries physical forces? This is exactly the very same idea behind Einstein's Unified Field theory, a common, single or one field, from which the other fields owe their existence.

Considering the existence of another field which mediates physical Force in the Universe, provides us tremendous insight to explain many previously difficult problems in physics. This concept, provides a much easier way to grasp the interrelationships between fields energy and matter in the Universe. This concept provides a means to unify and simplify many thus far divided and confusing concepts in the physics. We find a "common origin" to the very concepts of "forces" and "fields" themselves. Most importantly, we find the means to visualize what never could be visualized before.

Not All Momentum is Electromagnetic

Not All Momentum is Electromagnetic

When we are discussing the relationship between electromagnetism and the concept of a field carrying physical force we should point out a very important situation. Although the Poynting Vector is related to the electromagnetic fields, this field carrying physical force may also exist entirely independently of any electromagnetic field.

We tend to think acceleration of a charged particle is always associated with a change in electromagnetic field, but there is more to this concept. We too should consider whether all transfer of physical momentum, creates an electromagnetic field or can waves exist in the field carrying physical force without any associated electromagnetic waves?

We can talk about the transfer of motion and acceleration through space, in a completely different context, as longitudinal waves through another field carrying physical force in space. We can speculate not only can the motion or acceleration of charge be transferred through space in this manner but the motion and acceleration of neutral fields and even neutral mass could be transferred through space in this way as well. There is strong evidence to suggest this universal, field carrying physical force, is more fundamental than the electric and magnetic fields and not dependent upon them.

For example, referring once again to Richard Feynman in Feynman's "Lectures on Gravitation" he says "we have inherited a prejudice that an accelerating charge should radiate", and then he goes on to argue that the usual formula giving the power radiated by an accelerating charge as proportional to the square of the acceleration "has led us astray" because it applies only to cyclic or bounded motions. We can thus ask, "Can acceleration ever occur without a change in electromagnetic field?" From Does A Uniformly Accelerating Charge Radiate? - http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath528/kmath528.htm. What we find is this concept of all accelerating charge radiating has not been formally settled.

They point to the situation in which charges can exist, fixed and stationary relative to the surface of the Earth, but that such charges are in an accelerating gravitational reference frame. Thus to maintain their position they must be constantly accelerating and thus should constantly emit radiation. The same could be said of a space craft in orbit, experiencing zero-g. It is as we say, constantly falling and thus constantly accelerating, yet its forward velocity keeps it from falling any closer to Earth. Does such a space craft in orbit, constantly radiate electromagnetic energy due to this constant acceleration. Clearly, there are deeper considerations to our understanding of charges accelerating to cause electromagnetic radiation.

Thus we should consider that not all acceleration produces a resulting electromagnetic field. Thus forces of acceleration themselves could indeed be propagated or mediated by some other mechanism, another field of energy. Thus even in interactions of force and momentum transfer between neutral bodies, this field carrying physical force would still mediate the interaction, without any associated electromagnetic field or electromagnetic radiation. What we find, is every changing electromagnetic field must produce an associated change in this third "Field of Force", as a change in momentum. However, not all changes in momentum need produce an associated change in the electromagnetic field. Thus the "Field of Force" can transfer momentum through space, but not always with an associated electromagnetic field. This is a remarkable characteristic and extremely interesting.

Figure 3

Rotating Electromagnetic Field and Resulting Momentum Force

We can see in certain cases, the electromagnetic field can be in an alternating or rotating state, in which the electric field and magnetic field are in an oscillation. Such an oscillation, when occurring at a very high frequency relative to some slower frequency, gives the appearance of the electric field and magnetic field cancelling or being outwardly neutral. Thus very high frequency oscillations of electromagnetic field, do not interact as one or another poles of magnetism or one or another sources of charge, but average out to a mixture of both, with no one pole or charge predominating. As we have shown when discussing the forces from alternating or oscillating electromagnetic fields, they still produce a unidirectional momentum or force. Thus we have another mechanism by which volumes of space, can be apparently neutral, yet still capable of causing changes in momentum or accelerations.

There is a constant accelerating force being produced in this situation, yet there would be no radiation as the fields are in perfect oscillation, neither gaining nor losing energy. If we added energy, or this system radiated energy, only then would the acceleration no longer be constant. Thus we can have forces of motion, even constant accelerating forces of motion, without electromagnetic radiation, as demonstrated with this simple concept.

There is an additional situation in which the electromagnetic field can be in an alternation or oscillation, which is so low frequency, that for other interactions within it, it appears to be essentially only one pole and not in oscillation at all. If it took a million years for an electric field to oscillate, one or the other pole would dominate for an exceedingly long period of time when compared to any higher frequency oscillations. Thus there are special cases in which electromagnetic fields operate in an entirely different notion than expected. The resulting field carrying physical force oscillation in this case, would be very difficult to detect and would appear to be simply continuous, accelerating motion.

There is nothing preventing us from having changes in the "Field of Force", which are propagated or mediated, without any electromagnetic field whatsoever. The detection of these types of waves, which would be entirely non-electromagnetic, longitudinal waves through free space, would be exceedingly difficult. Normally, we are only ever be able to detect deviations in the field carrying physical force, through its relationship with electromagnetism and thus the resulting electromagnetic radiations or effects. We always detect the electromagnetic waves and have based all our physics measurements upon the detection of these electromagnetic waves. When there are variations in this "Field of Force", which do not produce electromagnetic changes or electromagnetic waves, we really have no current mechanism by which to measure them or awareness of them.

This is akin to detecting sound waves, but as a disturbance of pressure in Space itself, which could be occurring at much higher or lower frequencies than the current spectrum we associate with sound. Even to detect sound waves, we normally convert the mechanical, longitudinal, physical pressure forces, into some sort of electrical signal. Even our ears do this to provide sound information to the brain. All speakers and microphones use some sort of electromagnetic interaction to produce or detect sound.

Thus this third field carrying physical force represents a mechanism and field which could be for all intensive purposes, mostly invisible to us. It is only through its interrelationship with the electromagnetic field, can we even determine it is real. This is the primary reason such a field has evaded our awareness for so long. We never detect it directly and only indirectly are aware of it as physical transfer of momentum, physical collisions, the photoelectric effect and through other similar electromagnetodynamic interactions. Detection of such a non-electromagnetic field, is the field equivalent of detecting neutrinos.

We find this non-electromagneticcharacter of the field carrying physical force to be responsible for so many unexplained phenomenon in reality. It's existence opens up entirely new realms and fields of study, which have only thus far been dreamt of. We could even speculate, due to this 'non-electromagnetic' character, waves and energy in such a field may not be limited to the speed of light. The speed of light may be solely an electromagnetic limitation. The idea of a non-electromagnetic "Field of Force" would have very unusual characteristics which would demonstrate its existence in unexpected and counter-intuitive ways. We would see such an all pervasive force applied throughout the Universe, and would expect to find this concept greatly simplifies many cosmological problems. We would expect to see its application even within the biological realms and could finely sanely propose a scientific path to define many 'fringe' fields of science and even potentially consciousness and life itself. Implication of which we will discuss further elsewhere. Implications of the Unified Field

A Unified Relationship Between Electromagnetism and Physical Force

Since three dimensions are required to define any volume in space, and thus three axis are required to represent this ( X, Y, Z ), it is completely sane to propose there are three real fields which occupy and define each of those dimensions in any volume of real Space. The electric field is one dimension, the magnetic field is one dimension, and there is a third "Field of Force" which is one dimension. These three dimensions define the extent and properties of any three dimensional volume of space. Each dimension of space is 90 degrees out of phase with the other two dimensions of space. By out of phase, this simply means they follow this arrangement in space, each field is on one of the three axis of space.

Thus the momentum, direction of movement, and this third field carrying physical force component, occupies one of the axis, and the electric and magnetic fields occupy the other two. This spatial relationship of electromagentic fields is again referenced:

"A light wave consists of energy in the form of electric and magnetic fields. The fields vibrate at right angles to the direction of movement of the wave, and at right angles to each other."
Light - HowStuffWorks.com

These fields act and propagate as waves, and thus their energy is in motion, vibrates, oscillated, or alternated. Thus we need to consider how these three fields interact in time. How changes to one or two of the fields, causes changes in the third. Such a relationship is well known, and not difficult to define.

There is a straightforward, mathematical relationship between these three fields in Space, a relationship which underlies the transfer of all energy through Space/Time. This relationship is demonstrated by the simple animations in Figure 2 and Figure 6, copied below. These animations demonstrates the real time relationship of a changing electric field in blue, a changing magnetic field in red and the changing longitudinal, field carrying physical force component in green. We find that not only does light propagate through a relationship between its electric fields and magnetic fields, but we must also include its relationship with the third dimension of space, which denotes the electromagnetic fields momentum or energy transfer, the Poynting Vector. Which as we have discussed previously, represents a field carrying physical force in space.

Figure 2
Plot of Lorentz Force of an Alternating Electromagnetic Field


Figure 6
Relationship of Electromagnetic Fields to Momentum and Velocity of Light

This simple, triangular relationship, greatly simplifies many problems in physics. This interesting relationship demonstrates the mathematics of understanding this interdependent relationship, is far more straightforward than we have presumed. Indeed, we would even say this deep underlying simplicity is the reason why such a concept was overlooked. It seems too simple to be relevant, yet it is extremely and deeply relevant to so many things. This relationship is the fundamental, universal structure of Space. It is the structure of "Feldraum", or "Field Space".

This three dimensional relationship, can be reduced to simple concepts of trigonometry. Simple trigonometry can define the relationship between these three fields in space and how their wave motions interact together as a whole. Thus this concept of three spatial fields, greatly simplifies our ability to visualize and represent the interplay of forces through space. Rather then seeing the relationship as multiple formulas related to two components of space at a time, we see the full three dimensional relationship and can take into account all three components at the same time. We must consider the total sum of three fields at once, and this simple underlying interplay between them. Although simple in concept, its application and implementation can lead to the tremendous complexity in physics, when only two of the components are considered alone. Much of physics tends to miss or ignore this "third side of the triangle" and thus must resort to elaborate, contortionist mathematics to arrive at the correct result.

When we use trigonometry as a representation of the three dimensional relationship between these three fields, we find the resulting waveforms correspond to the physical behaviour of the wave energy. The first dimension is the sine, the second dimension is the cosine, and the third dimension is the tangent. Thus the tangent is perpendicular to both the sine and cosine. Each field component, represented by each waveform, is 90 degrees out of phase from the other two components. We can see this relationship on a single graph in Figure 11.

Graphs of the Three Primary Trigonometry Functions

Figure 11
Relationship between Physical, Electric and Magnetic fields

Formula for the magnitude and direction of the longitudinal waveform.

We can demonstrate this relationship with some animations. The transverse electric wave is the sine wave, the transverse magnetic wave is the cosine wave and the longitudinal, physical, momentum wave is related by the tangent. The boundary defined by the tangent, defines the limits of the transfer of momentum from the electromagnetic wave as one is converted into the other and back again. We see here defined in a simple manner, how the transverse electromagnetic waves are related to a third, non-electromagnetic physical wave which propagates longitudinally. Due to this longitudinal nature, the third physical field wave is capable of conveying momentum and physical forces.

Transverse Electrical Wave


Longitudinal Force Wave


Transverse Magnetic Wave

The primary difference between these two types of waves, is really how the wave itself propagates away from the particle motion. In both cases the particles underlying the wave motion, are simply oscillating back and forth, but how the wave propagates away from this oscillation changes. In the case of the transverse wave, the wave propagates away perpendicular to the direction of the particle oscillation. In the case of the longitudinal wave, the wave propagates away in the same direction as the particle oscillation. This is an important characteristic and shows that all particle oscillation is capable of producing both longitudinal and transverse waves, depending only upon what direction the final wave propagation occurs. Thus transverse and longitudinal waves are more interrelated than we may have presumed. Especially in the case of electromagnetic waves due to oscillating charged masses.

Terms like "transverse" and "longitudinal" are relative to the direction of propagation of the wave.

In stringed instruments, like a guitar, the string vibrates with a transverse standing wave. However, the movement of this wave causes longitudinal sound waves. Although a string can cause very little longitudinal motion of the air, by using a sound box and bridge upon which the string is attached, a guitar can amplify the transverse motion of the string into a longitudinal soundwave we can hear.

Consider from the animations above, the transverse wave animation can be rotated 90 degrees to the orientation of the longitudinal wave animation, and then the underlying particle motion will "match". We see if we were to draw a red line representing the motion of the particles in the transverse wave animation, similar to that which exists in the longitudinal animation, this line can be made to coincide with the line of the longitudinal wave if we rotate them appropriately.

Remarkably, we were not able to find a single animation online which shows this relationship properly. There are multitudes of videos showing transverse waves and also multitudes showing longitudinal waves, but none showing the direct connection between the two. So we made the animation below to demonstrate this relationship.

Even for electromagnetic waves, such as light, there is always a corresponding longitudinal component despite this rarely being discussed in established physics. The motion of an oscillating charge if viewed from the side, can be seen to create transverse waves as is often shown. However, that same exact motion when viewed from the top, face on, will have us see the charge come towards us and then move away from us, which is a longitudinal motion. Thus there are always two wave components to any oscillating electric charge. One propagates as a transverse electromagnetic wave and the other is more like a electrostatic longitudinal pressure wave. It is very interesting to consider how this situation applies to circular and spherical geometries, where the longitudinal wave is spherical compared to the circular transverse wave travelling upon that spheres surface. That this simple fact has been overlooked, is the cause for many confusing aspects of established physics today.

In physics, we speak of the physical forces resulting from certain electromagnetic fields, as the dynamic component. We have electromagnetodynamic and magnetohydrodynamic pumps of which we have mentioned at length. Thus the word "dynamic" is also appropriate to denote this third field carrying physical force character of the electromagnetic waves. It is more appropriate to say all energy is transferred as, in the context of our discussion here, an electro-magneto-field carrying physical force wave or simply as an electro-magneto-dynamic wave. By not including this third dynamic, physical, momentum, acceleration character of electromagnetic waves, we have been confused and unable to fully grasp the full nature of electromagnetic energy transfer.

We find a very interesting reference to just such an understanding of longitudinal forces being relevant in electromagnetism, which was later dropped. The original longitudinal concept shows itself in the deep ideas proposed by Andre-Marie Ampère when he defined a very important and experimentally proven law, which demonstrated how electric currents were carried by direct electric forces not fields through space. James Clerk Maxwell, the founder of modern electromagnetic theory stated clearly, this was an important and remarkable discovery not to be ignored. Yet in modern, established electromagnetic field theory the longitudinal forces between charges in an electric current situation are considered negligible or to not exist. Thus Ampère's important law, was ignored despite its significance. The current explanations of electromagnetic fields are entirely contrary too and ignores Ampère's critically important law. The concept was never disproven, and in fact modern replications of its experiments continue to prove its importance and validity. The concept was dropped in favour of a different explanation and approach, the approaches of Lorentz and Maxwell.

Thus we lost the real underlying physical interpretation of electromagnetic effects and instead today have Lorentz and Maxwell's formula's to describe these effects. This concept and its interpretation allow us to describe electromagnetic forces, not as an interplay between the two forces of electric fields and magnetic fields, but as the actions of a singular force, electrostatic effects. It is very remarkable, that Ampère's original interpretation and law is much more in agreement with Special Relativity and could even provide a better framework within which to unify electricity and gravity. What Ampère’s law implies, is electromagnetic fields are not self-propagated through empty space, but carried through an instantaneous contact action between charges. That is, everything is directly connected and there is no such thing as a truly empty space. This concept is entirely inline with everything being described within this discussion.

Although instantaneous, the intensity of the force felt by each distant element is reduced by the square of the distance, thus the effect of the initial impulse becomes very weak to the point it's instantaneous action is undetectable at large enough distance. As each successively closer charge experiences a greater and greater force, the resulting action or energy appears to take time to propagate, despite the underlying change being instantaneous at short distances. Only as the motion is transferred by successively closer and closer charges, does the resulting effect propagate. This causes a perceived delay, the speed of light. Thus herein we find a mechanism to connect fundamental ideas of the propagation of motion and force to the speed of light itself. This is a very important clue to unify electric effects and gravitational effects as it entirely removes the ideas of "action at a distance".

Within this discussion, we have attempted to bring back these critically important ideas of physical interpretations of physics, which does bring back Ampère's law, but we have chosen to describe these physical forces as being some combination of physical force occurring in a singular field. It is not lost upon us, within such an interpretation, the notion of a field is superfluous, as Ampère proposed. Whether we consider physical force as a real physical touch between material objects or a longitudinal wave through a singular field capable of conveying physical forces, is merely a simple choice of words. Anywhere we use the terminology "physical field of force" we could readily just say, "physical force" as well. We use the idea of a field of physical force as this allows a much more fundamental description for the transfer of energy, when matter itself does not exist.

What is even more astounding is Ampère's original paper has only recently been translated into English and made widely available. Thus this major oversight within established physics has gone largely unknown. Recent work by Peter Graneau and now by his son, Neal Graneau has begun to renew interest in this improperly discarded notion.

You can better understand the significance of Ampère's law by watching this video, which links to some researchers more deeply investigating these ideas. The Force That Physics Erased: Ampère’s Forgotten Law See the Pattern - Channel on YouTube

By not considering the full interrelationship of electromagnetodynamics in electromagnetic waves, we have not been able to unify our concepts of energy transfer. We find within advanced physics even a deep misunderstanding of what energy and force truly are. We have to this point considered electromagnetic energy transfer and the transfer of physical forces and momentum to be separate concepts, but have herein shown how these two concepts are deeply interrelated.

Space can convey both transverse and longitudinal waves and thus can convey all forces as wave energy. Space can convey both electromagnetic and physical forces through different types of wave motion. This very strongly suggests that Space has some singular property, or consists of a singular field, through which different types of waves may propagate. These different types of waves, are to us different types of energy, either electromagnetic or physical forces like momentum. Thus Space appears to be be some singular field, a Unified Field, capable of conveying all field forces through different types of wave motion.

"Although this result is to be expected by classical electromagnetism, it leads inexorably to the acceptance of the physical reality of the Poynting vector, even though E and H arise from independent sources. . . . permanent magnets and electrets can be used to build a flywheel of electromagnetic energy steadily flowing in circles in the vacuum gap of a capacitor as if Maxwell's medium were endowed with a property corresponding to superfluidity." - "Observation of Static Electromagnetic Angular Momentum in Vacuo". Graham and Lahoz, Nature V. 285, May 15, 1980, p.129;

"This raises the issue as to whether static (i.e., non-propagating) ExH fields also constitute momentum (as the mathematics would imply), and in particular whether changes in static fields could result in the transfer of momentum to an attached structure. As it turns out, the answer can be yes as illustrated in the example of the Feynman disk paradox. . . . Even though nothing is apparently in motion, if we take the ExH momentum concept seriously, it would appear that there is angular momentum "circulating" about the disk in the static fields. . . ." - "Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight " H.E. Puthoff*, S.R. Little, and M. Ibison

"This derived Poynting equation uses two different formalisms, and surprisingly a Poynting field may also offer a new path for investigating physics and electrical engineering as well as create consequences for a new methodology to expand advanced propulsion systems."
A Poynting Vector/Field Conservation Equation and Gravity - The Murad-Brandenburg Equation

Another serious study on the ability of electromagnetic fields to manipulate inertia.
Propellantless Propulsion by Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation. Experiment and Study By Hector Hugo Brito

Possibly the most comprehensive evaluation of a link between electromagnetism and gravity in existence to date. This is a serious mathematical research funded by the United States Air Force to examine the possibity of creating a new form of propulsion using knowledge of a means to effect gravity through electromagnetism. Interestingly, this paper links to some of the other scientists and papers discussed here.
Electric Propulsion Study Prepared for Air Force Space Technology Center

The same concept appears to be described in Pharis Williams paper, using thermodynamic theory to unite different aspects of physics.

The Dynamic Theory by Pharis E. Williams is a successful rewrite of physics from a purely thermodynamic perspective. Again demonstrating a link between what we know of gravitational field and electromagnetic field. This paper has been successfully peer reviewed many times and yet remains largely unknown. The theory proposes the following equation.
"V x S+(0.5)o/dt(B^2+E^2)-E x (E-V x B ) = 0"
"This means that interesting energy and momentum flows are expected for E x E terms and E x V x B terms. In other words, where the electric fields are rapidly changing or where there is a curl (rotation) of the magnetic field reacting with electric fields. (The electric field should be perpendicular to the axis of rotation.) These areas have been exactly where anomalous experimental claims have occurred. The E x E term will be considered in the Biefeld-Brown discussion for charging capacitors. The curl term is curious. It may be an expression that may come to bear in rapidly rotating systems of magnets. Notice a rapidly rotating magnet reacts somewhat like a charge. The E x V x B term is a triple scalar product. It is the same as the divergence of the Poynting vector( S )." - Pharis E. Williams
The Dynamic Theory - A New View of Space-Time-Matter by Pharis E. Williams

Feynman Lectures 27 Field Energy and Field Momentum - Feynmanlectures.caltech.edu

Feynman Lectures 27 Field Energy and Field Momentum - Direct Download

Simple explanation of a well-known collision experiment - by F. Herrmann and P. Schmalzle. 1980

How does the ball-chain work? - by F. Herrmann and M. Seitz. 1982

Light is Heavy - M.B. van der Mark and G.W. ’t Hooft. Van A tot Q, NNV, November, 2000

Ampère's Electrodynamics Ampère's Electrodynamics: Analysis of the Meaning and Evolution of Ampère's Force between Current Elements, together with a Complete Translation of His Masterpiece, Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience - A. K. T. Assis and J. P. M. C. Chaib

First indication of ampere tension in solid electric conductors - by Graneau, P. (1983).

Ampère–Neumann Electrodynamics of Metals - Graneau, P. (1985). Hadronic Press.

Newtonian Electrodynamics - Graneau, P., & Graneau, N. (1996). World Scientific.

In the Grip of the Distant Universe: The Science of Inertia - Graneau, N., & Graneau, P. (2006). World Scientific.

Kirchoff on the Motion of Electricity in Conductors - Assis, A. K. T., & Graneau, P. (1994).

Fundamental longitudinal electromagnetic (EM) force investigation using DC current - Graneau, N. (2025).

Electromagnetism and Matter

If we put aside the notions of additional forces in the nucleus of atoms, we are left with two primary forces at work in the Universe, electromagnetism and gravity. We can think of this simply as the actions of two things in the Universe, Light and Matter. Although these notions have been studied for centuries, we still have no unified relationship between light and matter. Let us examine this in greater detail and see if we can unite these ideas of light and matter.

In order to connect electromagnetism to gravity, we have first proposed the concept of a field capable of carrying physical forces. A Field Carrying Physical Force We can utilize this concept of a "Force Field" as a bridge between electromagnetism and gravity. We will elaborate further on the nature of this bridge, but first it is critical to address the concept of mass and matter itself. Without a concept of matter or mass and what it is, without explicitly defining how matter, mass and electromagnetic fields interact, we cannot hope to explain any relationship between gravity and electromagnetism. Gravity has been defined as an attractive force between all mass, thus we should explicitly define mass prior to any attempt to explain gravity.

Required Reinterpretations of Established Physics

We have made a sincere effort to "stand upon the shoulders of giants" in our descriptions and explanations of the Unified Field solution, but of course such a solution will inevitably bring up inconsistencies and issues with many established notions in physics. Let us clarify these differences and suggest some mechanisms by which we can resolve and reinterpret our most recent discoveries.

Electromagnetism and Gravity

When scientists propose to unify electromagnetic fields with the gravitational field, there appears to always be an effort, and we fell into this trap as well, to think of the relationship of gravity and electromagnetism as a direct relationship. That is, it is common to propose the electromagnetic fields can directly create gravitational fields, or gravitational fields can create electromagnetic fields. However, it is very well determined that such a direct solution is not possible. There are too many problematic differences between the nature of these two entities which prevent finding any common ground. This is the main reason such a unification is unrealized. In fact we could say there exists a chasm between these two concepts in physics. Like we must do with any chasm we need some sort of bridge to cross it.

As we have thus pointed out, there is another, third characteristic of electromagnetic fields in the momentum of the electromagnetic fields. We have thus far shown, this momentum of the electromagnetic field is very real. We have given definitive examples of electromagnetic momentum's existence, shown how it is calculated and defined its relationship to the electromagnetic fields. The momentum of the electromagnetic field is well known in established physics. Thus far we have proposed nothing new, we have just brought something rather obscure to the forefront of our attention. Currently the momentum of electromagnetic fields is considered merely a curiosity, useful only for certain calculations or purposes, we could say it is not even common knowledge. We could definitely say electromagnetic momentum is definitely not considered to be of any significant import to unification.

Yet, we have shown how Richard Feynman hinted at a deeper importance in understanding better the momentum of electromagnetic fields, when he asked in his lecture on electromagnetic momentum where the "precise location of the gravitational influence of electromagnetic fields" resided? We have observed the curvature of light and electromagnetic radiation due to a large gravitational field and thus see electromagnetic field can be influenced by gravity. Feynman points out this characteristic of light to curve in an intense gravitational field, and asks "Do you not want to allow that the light pulls equally on the sun?". We know the electromagnetic field is capable of conveying forces of momentum, which implies it has characteristics of mass and thus, as Feynman suggests, the light has a characteristic which can exert gravitational force equally on the Sun. This is the thread, so far tenuous and thin, which bridges electromagnetism and gravity. Lets wind this thread into a full rope bridge.

Path of light from a star, curved by the gravity of the Sun

Although we cannot connect electromagnetism directly with gravity, we find a possible bridge between the theories of gravity and electromagnetism through this property of momentum of electromagnetic fields. That there is gravitational influence upon light, implies such a bridge exists, for if gravity can curve the path of light then some property of electromagnetic fields must itself have gravity. For light to in turn, as we would expect in a classical approach, exert an opposing force on the Sun as Feynman has pointed out, light too must itself exert a gravitational force. Light has gravity. Except, we know gravity cannot act upon the electromagnetic fields of light directly, this is the big problem we face, that no direct correlation between electromagnetic fields and gravity has been ever demonstrated. We must conclude then, gravity must be acting upon some different, additional aspect of the light, other than the electric or magnetic fields. We need to find the "precise location of the gravitational influence of electromagnetic fields" as Feynman suggested.

It is not a great leap to propose the source of the gravitational force of light, an electromagnetic wave or photon, is something separate from the electromagnetic fields themselves. We would not be out of place to propose the "precise location of the gravitational influence of electromagnetic fields", is not in the electromagnetic fields themselves but some other 'particularity','characteristic' or 'property' of the electromagnetic waves. Indeed, this proposal is absolutely necessary and required to maintain the current division and separation of theory between electromagnetism and gravity.

The mediation of the gravitational force upon electromagnetic fields must be related to the electromagnetic fields, but cannot itself be electromagnetic in nature. How puzzling.

Except, as we have just clearly pointed out in significant detail, we already know of just such an additional 'property' of electromagnetic fields. We know there is another extremely significant property of electromagnetic fields, which behaves in the way and possesses the characteristics we require to solve this problem. As we have shown, Feynman very elegantly hinted at this very proposal. Feynman hinted that we must give much deeper consideration to the significance of light being able to carry momentum and to be effected by a gravitational field. He hints that this may provide an important key to our understanding, if we better understood the ability of gravity to effect the electromagnetic fields of light. We should explore the possibility, it is the momentum or Poynting Vector energy of the light, electromagnetic wave or photon, which is mediating its gravitational field.

Of course, we find this makes perfect sense, as momentum must always be associated with mass, and light or electromagnetic waves having no rest mass yet being capable of carrying momentum, must have some apparent mass associated with its momentum. This concept is how we, loosely, consider light to be effected by gravity, when light has no "rest" mass. We consider light has momentum due to its motion or velocity, and thus some "apparent" mass which can be affected by a gravitational field.

Thus there is known already a secondary relationship which can, through the momentum of electromagnetic field, mediate or cause the mechanism upon which gravity acts on the electromagnetic energy. If light or electromagnetic fields have momentum, then this momentum must be due to some apparent mass of the electromagnetic field. Thus the momentum is related to the ability of gravity to effect the electromagnetic field and by reciprocation the precise location of the gravity within the electromagnetic field. Whether this force of gravity which exists within the electromagnetic field is due to apparent mass or rest mass, does not change the fact it exists.

The arrow points to the relevance of electromagnetic momentum, which causes this apparent mass, as the precise location of this gravitational force in electromagnetism. This establishes further substance to our bridge between gravity and electromagnetism, so that we could possibly call it now a string between the two ideas. We should continue to pursue this path across this bridge, and consider more deeply the mechanism by which electromagnetism carries momentum, thus has "apparent" mass and thus what we could call "apparent" gravity.

One should begin to see a common connection, between all the ideas we have thus far presented, that of electromagnetism, momentum, energy, mass, inertia and gravity, but the connection may not yet be clear. Can we concretely tie all this together, in one final unifying concept?

We have thus far defined space in terms of three fields of force, the electric field, the magnetic field, and a "Field of Force" which mediates physical forces and momentum transfer. We have explained in detail, how such fields can become matter and that the fields of space are not separate from the matter within them. What is needed now is an explanation by which matter, experiences a gravitational force and how this force is propagated through space.

Experimental Evidence for the Unified Field

"Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex and more violent. It takes a touch of genius and a lot of courage to move in the opposite direction. - Albert Einstein

We can endlessly discuss the Unified Field Theory, debate whether it was completed, argue over its relevance or even its possibility, but words and mathematics prove little. Mathematics, theories, papers and concepts are of no use whatsoever if we cannot develop practical applications from them. Actions speak louder than words. We would argue it is the development of practical applications from the scientific theories which is by far the most important. Mathematical formulas and words have their role to play, but it is far more beneficial to bring such ideas into physical reality. Especially when such devices and experiments are capable of advancing humanity and civilization.

To that end let us bring this discussion, from mere words and conjecture, into reality. Presented here are devices, experiments and situations which are applications and experimental evidence which can confirm the ideas of a Unified Field and a "Field of Force". At this point, we are no longer just talking, speculating and theorizing, but providing the means for direct physical evidence and ways to develop real world, reproducible experiments and devices proving the reality of these ideas. The following experiments can prove without any doubt the existence and reality of the Unified Field and a universal "Field of Force".

Have You Done Any of These Experiments?

The short answer is yes, we have done some of these experiments. We have experimented sufficiently to know for certain the ideas presented within this document are real. For us this is sufficient. Others may need further evidence.

Experimentation is required, but the realization of a concept does not always lead to the individual who understands the concept being able to engineer or construct a direct experimentation. There is the concept, but an entirely different knowledge set and resources are required to apply and engineer a concept. For example, knowledge of how a combustion engine works or how an airplane flies can be grasped, but to actually build a car or an airplane is another thing entirely. Even to build a rudimentary internal combustion engine would take engineering, mathematics, machining, chemistry and other skills which any one person may not posses. To grasp a concept, does not always readily equate to being able to experimentally demonstrate that concept. Certain requirements, skills and resources must exist to do so. It is exceedingly rare for any one individual to possess all these skills and the resources to apply them.

We look up to certain individual who did possess this rare genius, such as Nikola Tesla, who not only understood extremely complex concept but who was able to demonstrate and apply these concepts in physically real constructions and invention.

We have not reproduced or attempted all these experiments, but trust these experiments worked and were demonstrated as described by their inventors or witnesses. We are able to consider such physical constructions and relationships in our mind, so that it is clear these particular experiments have a sound basis in reality and could be constructed and built as designed. We see these as the most likely avenues of research which would produce the results we would expect from the existence of a Unified Field. We see the common element of the Unified Field through all of these experiments and thus out of so many possibilities suggest these to be the most likely to produce remarkable results and evidence for the concept of a Unified Field. True investigations and actual reproduction of some of these experiments would require significant funding and work on the part of a large number of people.

It is easy to discredit and dismiss information, for which there is no hard evidence. When hard evidence is found, then it is not so easy to dismiss these ideas. This is what we found when researching and investigating the concepts of a Unified Field. We were skeptical of such a solution being possible and questioned the very nature of the entire concept, but upon finding numerous experiments and applications which demonstrated the reality of exactly this concept, then our doubts were always put to rest.

The Unified Field, the concept of another Field of Force and a connection between electricity and gravity has been suggested and demonstrated many times before. We need only recognize the connection and significance of the following experiments to prove its existence.

Existing Demonstrations of Levitation

We will here provide numerous experimental examples which demonstrate various known means to levitate objects against the force of gravity. These experiments may or may not prove anything new or novel, but give us some background and framework upon which we can base further ideas.

You can see videos of various methods to achieve levitation from John Iwaszko's YouTube channel which he describes as follows:

"Antigravity the Reality" was originally filmed between 1991 to 1996, with 15 methods of levitating an object known to the author with heavier than air devices usually referred to as "antigravity" as they achieve flight without propellers, jets or rocket propulsion. The original inspiration of this series was to show interested people "REAL" experiments that can levitate objects, real is defined as "SCIENTIFIC" experiments that are repeatable by others. As opposed to fake or unrepeatable experiments or presentations mainly by "armchair" scientists/people that speculate or form opinions about how to create antigravity that dominate the word "antigravity," and in my opinion do not form a solid basis from where to start serious research and experimentation. This of course does not mean that other proposals are not possible, as I only present my own successful experiments that are repeatable scientifically; science fiction has always inspired reality!"

15 Real Antigravity Methods - John Iwaszko

Electromagnetic Induction Levitation

Although not electrogravity, we will here discuss another method by which electromagnetic fields can produce a levitation against gravity. This is a simple demonstration often references as a means to levitate objects. However, this is not electrogravity, but purely an electromagnetic repulsion, relying very much on an opposing field created in a large metal plate beneath the levitating coil, or the metal plate is levitated over the magnetic coil.

You can make a simple electromagnet by winding a long wire into a coil, which increases the magnetic field by adding up the magnetic fields of each individual wire. You can power an electromagnetic from a battery which is direct current ( DC ) or alternating current ( AC ). Any insulated wire will work, but with magnet wire the varnish coating is very thin, and very insulating, so the coil windings can be closer together.

In professionally created electromagnetic they will employ special materials for the core of the electromagnet. A Tesla Coil has no core, and is referred to as an Air Core transformer. Indeed, if you place two electromagnets close to each other and power one with alternating current, it will induce an alternating current in the other coil, this is inductance. All transformers rely on this simple concept.

All current flow will generate a magnetic field. However, induction requires a changing flow of current. Induction is the act of inducing or causing an opposing magnetic or electric field, from the inducing field. A magnet field is induced in the environment which opposes or is opposite, to the magnet field the alternating current is producing.

The alternating electric current in the coil, produces and alternating magnetic field. This rapidly changing field, induces and opposing field all around it, which tries to oppose or cancel it. This opposing field acts as a reactance or counteraction to the creation of the magnetic field. Normally, in air this counter acting field is very weak and you would not even notice it. However, when you put a metal plate or some other metal which can react more strongly, this opposing field can be sufficiently strong to repel the magnetic coil creating it.

The magnetic field of the coil induces a much more powerful opposing magnetic field in metal because a greater imposing current can flow in the metal. A much much stronger alternating electromagnetic field would be needed to do achieve the same effect over air or plastic or wood. The alternating magnetic field created by the coil will always induce an oppositely alternating magnetic field, thus the two magnet fields repel each other. The induced magnetic field opposes or repels the inducing magnetic field.

Thus the magnetic field of the coil repels or moves away from the magnetic field it induces in the metal plate. It can only move so far way because the coil itself is inducing the magnetic field which is causing the repulsion. As it moves further away, it induces less repelling magnetic field and would fall back down. If it gets to close the strength of the induced field increases pushing it away. So the electromagnetic induction coil can only levitate so high, before it reaches a balance point. Without the large metal plate beneath the coil, there would be no levitation.

Electromagnetic levitation device utilizing
simple electromagnetic induction repulsion

Levitation of an Electromagnetic Induction Coil - chrisdav93 on Youtube

(#0126) Lenz's Law Levitation Coil Stable with No Tethers - High Voltage Hot Dog on YouTube. Another excellent demonstration of induction levitation showing how to stabilize the position of the induction coil, using gaps between the aluminum plates which control the eddy currents causing the repulsion.

Diamagnetic Levitation of Pyrolytic Graphite

Levitation of a Magnet Using the Diamagnetic Properties of Bismuth

A Toy which demonstrates the only method of levitation using permanent magnets. The Levitron

See also our discussion on Ionocraft and Ionic Lifters

Reproduction of Ball Lightning

Despite the enormous potential for the solution to ball lighting to explain structure and mass creation from energy in the Universe, the subject remains more of a curiosity, misunderstood and generally unexplored. The lack of interest in the production of ball lightning today, shows the misdirection of established physics to investigate the microscopic, quatum world as an explanation for matter, when there may be a excellent and relevant macroscopic example right before us in ball lightning. If we were to expend serious effort into the reproduction of ball lightning, we would find evidence for another "Field of force" and a physical demonstration of the connection between gravity and electricity. Knowledge of this other field of force, and its relationship to electromagnetism, is what allows us to resolve the long standing mystery of long lived, stable electromagnetic plasmas, as we find in ball lightning.

Ball Lightning

Understanding ball lighting, could provide important evidence and experimental demonstration of the mechanism by which Unified Field theory unites with quantum theory. We see in ball lightning a mechanism by which 'fields' of energy, take on the character of an 'object' or 'form' of a certain size. This is an altogether different character of the electromagnetic field, a stable form of contained energy which appears to be capable of moving around as if it is an object of sorts. The repeated experimental reproduction of ball lightning in a laboratory could not only prove the unification between gravity, electricity and quantum mechanics but could even be the final clue which makes fusion energy completely feasible.

We have shown Nikola Tesla was capable of producing Ball Lightning in his Colorado Springs laboratory and had a good understanding of the mechanism involved. We should realize if we can repeatedly produce this phenomenon it will give us a much better understanding of the means by which fields and energy can become stable, independent 3-D forms. This is an important step to be able to understand how energy is formed into matter and more importantly provides another critical clue between the relationship of electric fields and gravitational fields.

Nikola Tesla knew how to create ball lightning. This is important as ball lightning appears to be a macroscopic stable formation of electrical energy. This would be an import key to fusion, formation of matter, electron creation and other fields.

Lightning discharges are, accordingly, very frequent and sometimes of inconceivable violence. On one occasion approximately twelve thousand discharges occurred in two hours, and all in a radius of certainly less than fifty kilometers from the laboratory. Many of them resembled gigantic trees of fire with the trunks up or down. I never saw fire balls, but as compensation for my disappointment I succeeded later in determining the mode of their formation and producing them artificially. - Nikola Tesla from The Transmission of Electrical Energy without Wires. Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904

Nikola Tesla explained the ball lightning occurred only when an electrical discharge hit the same spot twice. That is when there was a plasma discharge path from one of his coils, and a second discharge happened to interact with the first plasma discharge. This would explain the events extreme rarity and the numerous failures to ever reproduce it consistently.

If there was an expanding or collapsing magnetic vortex induced by the initial path of an electrical discharge and then another electrical discharge stuck through the center of the first, thereby energizing it with additional energy, perhaps this would create something akin to an electrical smoke ring, which would then be relatively stable in the air. Although the actual size of the electrical toroid or smoke ring could be small, it would energize the air around it and thus appear as a glowing ball. Instead of disregarding and ignoring Nikola Tesla's discovery and explanation, we should see it for what it is, a clear path to understanding this phenomenon and its relevance to other physics concepts.

A New Explanation for One of the Strangest Occurrences in Nature - Ball Lightning - Nautil.us

During the “Guppy Reconversion Program” in 1945, tests were performed on the electrical gear of the submarine the U.S.S. Cutlass. During these tests a fully charged bank of batteries was accidentally connected across a non-spinning generator. The reverse current circuit breaker opened and interrupted the resulting short circuit.

A green fireball floated out of the circuit breaker into the engine room. The life of this fireball was about one second.

Paul A. Silberg of the Raytheon Company investigated this incident in 1962. Silberg concluded that “Some configurational energy must be present” in the plasma balls. Silberg offered an explanation to account for the excess energy. He said that the energy of the plasma ball was contained within a loop of current.

Further experiments with submarines, large battery banks and Tesla Coils was performed by a Robert K. Golka, but it appears he never met with any success. There is a video of him on board the USS Silversides Submarine, attempting such a test and filming in slow motion, but nothing significant is really discernible.

Robert K. Golka Conducts Fireball experiments in Submarine - geipeandldn on Youtube

Another startling sighting - and certainly one of the most detailed and scientifically credible - comes from Professor Roger Jennison (Department of Electronics, University of Kent) concerning his experiences on board a late-night flight from New York to Washington in March 1963. He later wrote of his experiences in the November 1969 issue of Nature. Jennison states that the phenomenon occurred after the aircraft encountered a thunderstorm in which it was enveloped by a bright and audible electrical discharge. Some seconds later a glowing sphere some 20cm in diameter emerged from the pilot's cabin and passed down the aircraft's central aisle approximately 50cm from Jennison. The ball moved on a straight course the whole length of the aisle 75cm above the floor at a velocity relative to the aircraft of about 1.5 ms-1. It was blue-white in colour and its optical output amounted to about 5 to 10 Watts. Interestingly, no heat was felt when it passed close by and the limb darkening (like that of the Sun) gave it an almost solid appearance, indicating that it was optically opaque. No asymmetry could be seen in any dimension so it was impossible to determine whether or not it was spinning.

It has been suggested ball lightning might be a good model for a fusion reactor confinement scheme if it could be consistently generated in the lab for proper study. I am curious why there has not been more done with the unintentional ball lightning of the type seen in old diesel electric submarines. My understanding is that clumsy switching of the large batteries that ran the subs would generate ball lightning.

We see in the following diagram, an experiment performed which attempted to produce ball lightning from the phase difference between two high voltage Tesla Coils. This is an excellent direction of research to pursue in this field. We question though why the experimenters picked the specific frequency differences they did, as it would seem more logical to experiment over a wide range of phase differences using some sort of variable frequency high voltage generator. Further, we suggest the explanation proposed by Nikola Tesla, previously mentioned, to be of significant relevance here. Just having two different fields out of phase may not be sufficient, the phase difference needs to occur in a confined volume, such as the small region of a plasma discharge.

Production of Ball Lightning from a Phase Difference in High Voltage Oscillations

We should consider the explanation of ball lightning made by Nikola Tesla, to be the most logical and likely method by which ball lightning forms. The idea of ball lightning being caused by two discharges interacting, explains the process and the rarity of the phenomenon. If we have an energetic region of plasma, and this region is impacted by a pulse from another high energy plasma, we could get a distinct situation in which one plasma, penetrating through another plasma, could induce the first plasma, into a toroidial vortex like situation. Such a plasma toroid would be extremely stable and this form could account for many of the strange behaviours of natural ball lightning. It would be exceedingly rare in nature, for lightning would need to essentially, "strike twice" through the same region of space, or the branching paths of lightning would have to cross each other or two lighting strikes would need to occur very near to each other and at nearly the same time.

Indeed, we even find direct mathematical proof for a mechanism by which electromagnetic waves can connected to form a stable concentration of energy, enough energy to become massive. In the following model, it is shown how the electromagnetic momentum of light can become confined in an odd, twisting, alternating, form which produces all the characteristic behaviors of the electron, like its spin, mass and charge. We see here that the electron, appears to be the most fundamental and first building block of matter from the energy of radiation. This model shows clearly how electromagnetic waves can in certain cases form a sort of circular, helical loop of energy, where the energy is trapped or contained. Are Electrons made of Light? (The Williamson & Van der Mark Electron model). Huygens Optics - on Youtube

We find these two papers highly relevant and very interesting as possible mechansims for the stability of ball lightning:
The Bagel Game by Bob Greenyer

Electromagnetic Fields Of Current Structures-V02 by N.E. Nevessky

The Mysterious Phenomenon Of Ball Lightning - See the Pattern on YouTube

‘Incredible video’ captured during Alberta storm could be rare ball lightning event: scientist - Global News

The Invisible Electrostatic Wall

In our investigations into a connection between gravity and electricity, we came across a very unusual and remarkable story. This story has been investigated thoroughly and determined to be as true as we are able to discern. The concept within is documented no where else and appears to be a chance demonstration of electrical effects with significant potential for experimental application. We find in this story, further evidence for the importance of fields in our understanding of forces and physical solidity.

This at the very least, appears to be a macroscopic demonstration of how electrical fields can appear to be solid, in macroscopic ways unlike the mechanisms of solidity as described within quantum mechanics. We note the possibility of such an effect is not currently recognized by the established physics community and there would likely be disbelief in such a concept, if this case was not so well documented.

We will here discuss the discovery of a very unusual static effect reported in a 3M plastic film manufacturing facility. The report concerned the creation of an 'invisible wall' through which no person could walk, like an invisible wall, which occurred beneath an area where a plastic film was being ran over lengthy rollers. This effect was investigate and confirmed by multiple people and the following is the extent of the research we could discover on the matter. This seems to be an effect possible within established physics yet represents a wholly unique application if true. Perhaps, this is the science of force fields of which science fiction has oft dreamt!

The reproduction of this effect, could suggest altogether new ways of applying electrostatic fields and we would predict, would require a better understanding of the forces created by electrostatic potentials. For example, we would question whether the situation described here, could work in a different orientation. Could such an "electrostatic wall" become an "electrostatic floor" suspending an individual in the air against the force of gravity. Does such an electrostatic wall represent the macroscopic reproduction of the forces of solidity we experience from ordinary matter, proving without any doubt that fields are responsible for the nature of matter we call solidity and particles.

"Invisible Electrostatic Wall" at 3M Adhesive Tape Plant - W. Beaty. Aug 1996

The Final Frontier - ESD Journal

From the ESD Journal site, here reproduced as the current ESD Association site no longer serves this file, although they do publish other articles from David Swenson. They likely just got tired of the attention such a remarkable story attracted.

Original ESD Website showing The Final Frontier story.The Final Frontier - ESD Journal - The ESD & Electrostatics Magazine. Website. 2011

Wide PolyPropylene Web Static Charge. A Phenomenon Worthy of Star Trek. - by Devid E. Swenson. Society of Plastic Engineers. ANTEC 1997 Proceedings April 27 - May 2. Toronto.

The Final Frontier
Response from Peter Thompson Response from Melissa Georgiou
Paraphrased and dramatized by Cynthia Waters

In August of 1980 in the southeast United States, problems were being experienced at a polypropylene plant. Strange things were happening around a film slitting machine.

David Swenson of 3M Electrical Specialties Division in Austin, Texas was called in to investigate. Little did he know that he was about to enter the final frontier. When Dave asked what type of problem they wanted him to look at, he was told that he would have to come to the plant. They could not explain it over the telephone. They did tell him that they were experiencing problems with contamination of wide web film as it was being run at high speed, converted (split) into "film jumbos" with a width of 3' x 5' for coating with adhesive to make tape. Dave didn't see what was so unusual about film being contaminated by dust, flies, other insects and... birds. "Birds"?

Now they had Dave's attention and he didn't hesitate to go to the plant to see for himself how birds could be caught up in film.

The Polypropylene web was 21 feet across - almost the width of three lanes of traffic on the interstate. The film ran from one roller up 20 feet to another roller; across 15 feet to a third roller; down 20 feet to a splitter; and was then wound onto two rolls. It formed a huge dynamic "tent". On the morning that Dave intended to measure the static electricity inside the web tent , the temperature was 80°F with a relative humidity of 75 to 80%.

As he walked toward the web with his field meter in hand, the machine operator said "I wouldn't do that if I were you. Strange things happen inside the web tent this time of day."

Dave paused and thought about what the man had said but he was there to do a job and that was what he intended to do. You see, Dave is a very brave guy. Besides, it was just film running on a splitting machine. He had seen that many times and nothing seemed particularly unusual that morning. That is, until he looked down at his static field meter.

With a 200kV @ 12" measurement device, the voltage measurements were off the scale and he was still 20 feet away from the web! For the meter to be pegged at that distance, the amount of static electricity had to be in the Megavolt range. He thought to himself "Van de Graaff would be proud!"

Since he had come this far, Dave decided to enter the web anyway. As he did so, the hair on his head, arms and entire body began to stand on end. Even worse, he began to feel like sparklers were hitting him all over his body. It felt like burning sensations at hundreds of points all over his being. (brave? - hummm?) At exactly one-half way into the web, David slammed into a wall that was both invisible and impenetrable. It felt like he had hit a force field like he had seen on Star Trek.

Although he knew this was Coulomb's Forces - the law of static attraction and repulsion - he was held in place for what seemed like ages as he tried to grasp what was actually happening to him. It's one thing to know about Coulomb forces, but it is quite another to feel them with such gusto. When he finally came to his senses, he had to literally "peel" himself off of the invisible wall.

Image from Original Article

As he backed out of the web, he saw a fly drawn right up into the film and wondered if conditions ever existed inside that web that could actually draw a person up there as well. Dave hurried to talk with the Plant Manager and excitedly explained what had just happened to him. The Plant Manager agreed to go to the web to see for himself what was going on. By the time he was able to go, however, it was later in the day and the temperature and relative humidity had risen. He was able to walk into the web and from one side to the other without experiencing anything at all unusual. He told Dave that he thought he was simply hallucinating. When the machine operator corroborated Dave's story, the Plant Manager agreed to meet early the next morning to see if the same conditions would exist as they had experienced earlier in the day. They met bright and early the next day. As the Plant Manager entered the web, his curly gray hair immediately straightened. As he strutted toward the center of the web, his confident gait suddenly came to a complete stop as he hit the wall of invisibility.

Once he peeled himself off of the force field wall, a shaken Plant Manager came out of the web and exclaimed...

that he "didn't know whether they should fix it or sell tickets".

They decided to fix it.

Conclusion Static Electricity can cause some very strange and often difficult to explain phenomena. It is easily controlled if a commitment is made. This nuisance can be reduced to a non-nuisance level by proper analysis and installation of suitable equipment, at a very low cost.

Corrective Action An induction static eliminator was installed across the web at the unwind. The static electricity was immediately reduced throughout the process to less than 50kV (from MV's). It was then possible to make measurements in the rest of the area. Additional induction units were also installed at the jumbo wind-up areas which resulted in less than 5kV at conclusion.

Editor's Note We would like to hear your explanations for Dave's adventure. Please give us any similar experiences you may have had. We will publish these in the next issue. Maybe this will become a series - "Weird Phenomena." - David Swenson ESD Journal

Image of the Scale of the Electrostatic Wall as Described

Response received via e-mail September 22, 2001 from reader Melissa Georgiou

I was searching the internet to find a similar situation that I had encountered and your article on the invisible wall is very interesting. I encountered an invisible wall, but it felt more like a cushion which was vertical and got denser the farther I pushed on it. It lasted for about 30 secs and I could not walk through it. It happened at dusk in England during fog and high sunspot activity. I've been trying to explain it since. I am so glad some one else has experienced a "star trek" like force field and I hope you will encourage your engineers to perfect the effect instead of fixing it by decreasing static.

Sincerely, Melissa Georgiou

Response received via e-mail June 7, 2001 from reader Peter Thomson

EUREKA - I have found it. I have been studying the implications of charge being moved at high speeds. The math is very complex so it is hard to predict what sort of experimental setup is required to demonstrate different aspects of the phenomenon. But I think your members have practical experience of this phenomena, and my theory may provide insight into practical ways of predicting and preventing problems.

First, a little bit of basic physics, often overlooked. When you consider two charged particles with the same charge, when stationary they will repel each other, but when moving in parallel each moving charge creates a circular magnetic field round itself that results in mutual attraction. This is normally demonstrated in the attraction between two wires where negative charge is moving in parallel, but applies equally to charge moving in a paper or plastic film on a production line or in a moving charged dust cloud, or a thunder storm.

The forces created by an electrical current in a wire are produced in proportion to the speed of electrons through a wire. Because of collisions and random movements of electrons in the wire, the overall speed of the electrons, or drift speed is quite slow. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/ohmmic.html (but the density is high). A 1 volt potential in a pure copper wire will produce a drift speed of 0.0043m/s This is less than half a centimeter in a second. One definition of the amp and force is based on this. 1 amp produces a force of 2*10^-7 Newtons per metre of wire when the parallel wires are 1 meter apart. By contrast production line speeds for paper and plastic film can be over 100 times faster and air flow in a tornado can exceed 1000 m/s.

Because electrostatics and electric current are often taught separately in schools, the effects of moving charge are often forgotten about. The effects of moving single charge become most dramatic when a charged vortex is created. Charged particles in front of or behind another particle will experience strong forces of repulsion, but the charged particles moving in parallel are very strongly attracted together! The net result is to form a charged sheath vortex, where a sheath of particles rotates about an open core. The sheath cannot contract into the core because of repulsion round the core, and the opposite sides flowing in opposite directions repel, Neither can it expand outwards from the sheath because of the attraction between particles moving in parallel. The result is a very tightly bound sheath of particles and air molecules. If new charged particles are being delivered to this rotating sheath vortex they will be bound into the sheath with the build up of huge electrical potential that doesn't discharge because of the forces of attraction generated by the movement of charged particles.

Your article describes the ideal situation for setting up a charged sheath vortex. The high speed web is delivering a constant supply of the same charge to the tent created by the web flowing up and over the tensioning rollers. Within this tent, friction with the moving film causes the air to start rotating and initially this air will be given the same charge as the film. The rotating charged air will now start to create the attractive forces between particles moving in parallel and will draw in more charge from the moving plastic web. This process will continue and will produce a charged vortex sheath spinning in the middle of the tent. This would normally be invisible and could also feel like a solid wall with a well defined edge (and a soft center). You certainly wouldn't push it out of the way!

The charged sheath vortex could be made visible by releasing smoke streamers into the area.

Reference http://uk.geocities.com/tornadodrive/ - ESD Journal

An updated link to the charged sheath ideas of Peter Thompson.Charge Sheath Vortex Basics - Peter Thompson

An interesting report of various observations from individuals who have been inside a tornado. Might not entirely relevant to the Electrostatic wall, but if such reports are to be believed there is much more going on with a tornado than simply air moving due to temperature differences. Since clouds and such storm formations are capable of producing very intense electromagnetic discharges in lightning, we find it entirely plausible there is a significant electromagnetic component to tornadoes and even hurricanes.

On the Electromagnetic Basis of Tornadoes - Collegetimes.co

Email Confirmation from David Swenson

David Swenson is definitely listed as giving that talk in Electrical Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge Symposium proceedings, 1995. http://books.google.com/books?id=hGspsJvDB0cC&pg=PT11&dq=david%20swenson

Here's a November 2003 email from Swenson, originally posted on this message board:

This is David Swenson, "Voltana" at 3M forwarded your question to me to see if I could assist.

I retired from 3M in March of this year and started a consulting company called "Affinity Static Control Consulting, L.L.C. The article you referred to in Electrostatic Journal was originally presented at an EOS/ESD Symposium but was not published at that time. I was asked to present it again at a conference in Canada related to the Printing and Graphic Arts industry several years later. The published version from that conference was then put on the Web Site of Electrostatic Journal. http://www.esdjournal.com/articles/final/final.htm

I have had numerous inquiries over the years from people all over the world regarding the phenomena. Several explanations were offered and several have tried to duplicate my observations on a lab or test bed scale. I have never heard if anyone was successful. The US Department of Defence was also interested and I think put some effort into trying to duplicate what was I observed. I was asked to try to get the plant to allow some others to come in and do a study but it never worked out. I have no access to it anymore, in fact is is not even a 3M operation anymore.

I think the best explanation has to do with the film being at or very near the theoretical charge density limit and just the right combination of resistance between the person and floor. With the electric field at its maximum at the center of the tent formed by the film, the conductive body (person) approaching the center was actually pinned to the floor. Had the floor been more conductive, the person would have been closer to ground and probably would have received a massive shock from a propagating brush discharge. But being isolated from ground, no charge separation occurred resulting in the electrostatic "pinning" effect.

There was some other talk about a "plasma" being formed but I do not think that explains it well. This only occurred at the exact combination of temperature and humidity (dew point) and went away when the humidity increased in the room.

You asked about charged particles - if you mean actual solid particles or an aerosol, I doubt that the field density could approach the film level since the particles would repel one another too much. - David Swenson

We can consider this "Electric Wall" along with our ideas about the apparent "solidity" of matter, and the formation of particles from fields. They are calling this an electric wall as if there is a solid wall through which one cannot pass, as if there is something solid there, but there is not. All we have is an extremely powerful electrostatic field, which behaves entirely as if there is something solid prevent passage or preventing any superposition. The electrostatic field appears significant to the idea of matter being particles and we touch upon this concept elsewhere in this document.

Further, we can consider Nikola Tesla's analogy to this effect, from his work with very high pressure water pumps. He describes the situation in which he produced such a high pressure stream of water from one of his pumps, that he could strike this water stream with a heavy metal bar and not be able to pass the bar through the stream of water. The extreme motion of the water, made it behave as if it were a solid material.

An idea proposed by Tony Cuthbert, was to surround a ship with a flow of water, spread out like a shell completely around the ship, which could be turned on at will. Any missile or projectile encountering this water, would impact it with great force, either damaging it, triggering its explosives or at the very least redirecting it. Thus we in essence would have a sort of water shield.

One begins to consider, in light of this idea of an "electric wall" and Telsa's experiments with the 'solidity of motion', if we could create some sort of electric field in a high degree of motion, which could similarity be used as a shield or force field. We could consider this as a possible explanation for the 'electrostatic' wall, but we consider static electric fields, to be unchanging and not in motion. Thus there may be a connection here, but we would need to investigate further. It does appear thought that the concepts of a Unified Field of force, lead to concepts of solidity and the potential for creating shields, force fields or artificial regions of solidity using electromagnetic fields of special configuration.

As mentioned we find it interesting to consider the possibility of constructing such an electrostatic wall, in a different orientation, so that the 'wall' was below a person acting as a floor. Could such an electrostatic wall support someone in the air? It is interesting to consider such a situation and even similar situations in which utilizing electromagnetic fields, we could produce a sort of anti-gravity chamber here on Earth, for simulating zero-g.

It has been considered, what if we were to construct an extremely powerful electromagnetodynamic field, which effected the area within a chamber or volume, and the resulting Lorentz forces of this field, acted in the vertical direction. Einstein demonstrated, such electromagnetodynamic fields can act even upon the dielectric currents within insulators, and thus specially configured fields could act even upon neutral bodies. Thus within such a chamber, even a person could enter, causing them to float in the air without experiencing any shock or sensation of the immense electromagnetic fields producing the anti-gravity like forces upon them.

Gravity Field Coils

These experiments detail a few unique combinations of electromagnetic coils and circuitry purported to create gravitational like effects. It is interesting to note the similarity between some of these designs and the similarities between these designs and other experiments and concepts discussed. We should also keep in mind the interesting paper on toroidial windings for the storage of electromagnetic field, The Bagel Game, linked below. Although these particular descriptions may be lacking in some of the required technical details to actually construct such a device, they nonetheless point out an extremely difficult case to solve with current electromagnetic theory with potential to produce the effects described. It seems only through experiment could we make any real conclusions about what the results of such devices would be.

We see a remarkable correlation between these, purported "fringe" physics ideas of a means to effect gravity using special arrangements and design of electromagnetic coils, and the other experiments discussed here. Specifically, we see the reports of rapidly rotating superconductor able to produce some gravitational like force and the device described herein as the Varo disk, to be so similar to the 'Gravity Field coils' it cannot be purely coincidental.

A the reality of a connection between electricity and gravity as defined by the Unified Field theory, implies such experimental results must exist and herein we find examples and discussion of just such experimental results. Can we continue to discount this connection, when we find such obvious and repeated demonstrations of its physical reality?

Rotating Superconductors

The Varo Disk

We find it interesting in the following paper, "Antigravity for Aerospace Applications" some attention is drawn to similar structures of toroidial coils surrounding cores of material. In the first case of the paper, they are simply discussing the fields of a toroid wound around a magnetically permeable core, which results in an electric dipole through the center axis of the toroid. In the second case, they convert this electromagnetic toroid, to a similar gravitational case, proposing the existence of a 'created' gravitational field through the center of such an arrangement.

Dipole Electric Field Generator

Dipole Gravitational Field Generator

Images From: Antigravity for Aerospace Applications - author unknown. A paper from a series of advanced technology reports produced in 2009 under the defence Intelligence Agency, Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications (AAWSA) Program

Antigravity - Robert L. Forward. Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California. 1962

The problem, as pointed out in the paper, is the mass required to be rotated in such a system is absolutely unachievable through any normal engineering method. They are considering the mass be that of the density of a star or rotated at velocities close to the speed of light. Thus, even if it could create a gravitational effect, such an effect would be many orders of magnitude weaker than the mass used to create this effect. Further the stresses upon such a system, as pointed out in R. Forwards paper would necessitate the use of electromagnetic fields just to hold it all together and keep it from just destroying itself. Thus the proposals in this paper, Antigravity for Aerospace Applications, although feasible from a mathematical perspective are entirely implausible and likely impossible from a practical engineering perspective.

We can consider, these "gravity field coils" as discussed here, operate in an altogether different manner than that proposed in this paper. What these devices appear to suggest, is there is some method by which energy can be collected, increased or stored, in the space around these arrangements of coils. Such an increase would necessarily involve an increase in the gravitational field due to the increased mass of the energy, according to Einstein's equation for energy mass equivalence. However, can we speculate in certain configurations such arrangements can reduce the energy, decreasing or creating a sort of energy vacuum in the space surrounding the device, and then effectively causing an anti-gravitational effect.

There is most likely something similar happening as described in the following two papers, which discuss in detail the energy effects of toroidial coils, toroidial coils, themselves wound from toroidial windings and further combinations of such arrangements. It was demonstrated, such coils do produce a stable form of energy in space which can actually persist even after the coil is unpowered and removed from that space. A phenomenon which seems to be of particular application to the ideas of particle creation from fields and the the formation of stable fields in space, like with ball lightning. Both of which are discussed further elsewhere in this document.

The Bagel Game by Bob Greenyer

Electromagnetic Fields Of Current Structures-V02 by N.E. Nevessky

An unrelated "gravity coil" diagram which shows the same basic circuit involved in the Shadowhawk device.

	February 14th, 1997



	NOTE !!  This project is EXTREMELY DANGEROUS and it is being presented ONLY

			 for informational purposes.  If you choose to do anything more than

			 read it, you are responsible for your own actions.

				   * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

						  Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501
							   Sponsored by Vangard Sciences
										PO BOX 1031
									Mesquite, TX 75150

									 October 17, 1990

							listed on KeelyNet as GRAVITY3.ZIP
						   courteously shared by Joseph Misiolek

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

			  /==\ \  / /==\ \  /==         /=================================\

			  |  |  \/  |  | |\ |  Systems  | The Resonant Gravity Field Coil |

			  +==+  ||  |  | ||||  Present  | (or: how to manipulate reality  |

			  |  |  /\  |  | | \|           |    in a 530 square inch area)   |

		   ===/  \=/  \=\==/=/  \           \=================================/

		   ____________________________________________________________________

				  |                 By (_>Shadow Hawk<_)                |

				  | Theory, concept, and Idea by: ????????????????????? |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

			   NOTICE: Within this file will be presented a potential method of altering the  spatiotemporal continuum as one desires. I take no responsibility  for  any  use  or misuse of this information, whether harmful or otherwise. The effects of this  device, if used in a careless  manner,  can  be EXTREMELY DANGEROUS.

		   ____________________________________________________________________

		   |        Gravity Resonance? What is this nut talking about?????    |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   You are probably thinking, "how can gravity possibly be resonant?"

		   This is a  good  question.  As  discovered by Thomas Townsend Brown, electricity is directly related to  gravity  (see  his  U.S. patents 1,974,483, 3,187,206 in particular.)

		   If this is so, it is most likely a vectorial relationship (law of opposites), and since there is already an electromagnetic vector (2 dimensional), a gravitational vector would be at 90  degrees to both the magnetic and   the  electric  vectors  (since  we  are  in  a  3 dimensional space.)

		   The gravitational vector is like  the  "duration  in  time"  of  the electric and magnetic vectors. There are also, in addition to scalar electric and magnetic waves

				  (see Bearden, Thomas E. "Toward a new electromagnetics: part IV:  vectors and mechanisms clarified.  Tesla  Book Co., Millbrae, California, 1983.

		   This work, however, fails to mention gravity waves, although it does mention controlling gravity), there are also scalar gravitic waves
		   
				  (see Ford,  L.H and A. Vilenkin. "A gravitational analogue of the Aharanov-Bohm  effect."   Journal   of   Physics  A. Mathematical, Nuclear,  and  General.  (Great  Britain).14(9), Sep.  1981. p. 2353-2357.)

		   ____________________________________________________________________

		   |                 Okay.  So There are gravity waves.               |

		   |              How can resonating them control reality?            |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

				  All of  the  above  has  been proven; this is where basically theory comes in.  There has been much supposed experimental proof of these effects, however  all  current   research  is,  unfortunately, proprietary, and it is extremely hard to come by anything helpful.

				  The only  good  sources of information are  some  small  mail order book stores, and no one store has everything.

				  One example   of   publicized   experimental   proof  is  the information regarding the  largely  ignored  Biefield-Brown  effect, whereby gravity can be nullified and even reversed  due  to electric charge

					(see Thomas Townsend Brown, Above patents), and the book on the Philadelphia  experiment  (and  NOT  THE  MOVIE! The movie was fiction, the  book  is  an  attempt to analyze what little fact is known.)

				  The true  Philadelphia  experiment, if it actually  occurred, used a Navy  ship degausser modified to act as some type of resonant gravity vector coil.

				  The actual  theory  is  that,   since   electricity   can  be "transmitted" through the ether through electric scalar  and  vector waves, and magnetic energy through magnetic scalar and vector waves, why not gravitational scalar and vector waves, if they do exist (law of opposites)?

				  A gravity  wave  is  the temporal "shape" of the electric and magnetic vector (I  hope  this  is  a  good  explanation!),  and  by changing this shape you are changing the molecular  construction  of the matter (or lack thereof) transmitting the waves.

				 Also, since  there  are  an  infinite number of parallel, real universes

				  (see Hypernumbers II, by Charles Muses, January 1978 "Applied Mathematics    and    Computation",   and   his introduction to Jerome Rothstein's "Communication, Organization, and  Science,"  The Falcon's  Wing  Press, Indian Hills, CO, 1958),

		   the gravity vector    coil    MAY    allow   the   psychic   (scalar electromagnetic brain wave) postulation  of  reality  through the G- vector. This could also be done with a computer, but both are beyond the scope of this paper.

				  I will now present the plans for the construction of a simple G-vector coil. What you do with it from here is up to you, show it to your physics  teachers  and  have them look up the references and watch their eyes pop as they find out the speed of light is NOT constant.
		  ____________________________________________________________________

				This, actually, is the hardest  part.  You  will either have to spend a lot of $$$ at a plastics company or have some  good  friends to get but  one  of  the  parts  needed, the others should be fairly easy.

				Listed in order of availability

				(2) 50 VDC (DC-10 MHZ preferred,  but...)  @ 10A, 50KV isolated power supplies

				   (parts list for those:)

				(2) 110  VAC  to  48 VDC @ 10A  Isolated stepdown  transformers (500 watt)


				(2) 100V PIV rectifier diode

			   Optional (2) Heatsinks for above

			   (2) 0-120 VAC @ 10A variacs (variable autotransformer)

				(2) 80-100V @ 1000uF electrolytic capacitors

				Optional (1 or 2) Case to hold it all in

				(1) 25-100  KVDC  (again,  DC-10 MHZ preferred...) @ 100-400 uA (not necessarily variable) 50 kV isolated power supply

					(parts list)

				(1) 10-12 KV @ 20-30 mA neon sign transformer

				(4) TV HV diodes - 12-14 KV PIV

				(4) HV capacitors, 500-1000 pF @ 10 KV

				(1) 0-120 VAC @ 10A variac (variable autotransformer)

				(1) Case to put it all in

				about 7500 feet of #16 Guage heavy Formvar magnetwire

				a lot (probably 5000 feet) of #20 or #22 magnetwire

				some fiberglass tape

				some plastic tape

				TV HV corona dope

		   And, the clincher:

				(1) Hollow plastic dia., about 30"-32" outside diameter, 24-26" inner diameter, and about 4"-6" thick.

					It must be hollow, thermosetting plastic, with supports for an internal  coil  of  wire,  and two holes for the wire to leave, spaced to avoid electrical discharges.

					It must be boiling wax-tight, preferrably with a gasket.
					
					And it should be openable,  at  least into 4 sections, with screwholes (and gaskets if available.)

					You also  need enough of equal portions of  Carnubura  (sp) beeswax, and paraffin wax to fill the inside.

		   ____________________________________________________________________

		   |                           Construction                           |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------



		   (1) Wind a  28"  (about,  must  center inside the hollow part of the plastic donut) "hoop"  coil  of  the  #16 magnetwire.

						  (see Illustration 1)

		   (2) Wrap first with fiberglass and then plastic tape,  and  then dip it in TV HV corona dope. Allow to dry.

		   (3) Place the coil inside the hollow donut.

		   (4) Seal the  donut,  allowing  an  opening for the wax to be poured into.

		   (5) Pour the wax into the donut,  leaving  as  little  air  space as possible.

		   (6) Seal the donut, adding any extra wax.

		   (7) Wrap approximately one layer of the #20 or #22  guage magnetwire over the outside of the donut.

		   (8) Coat with HV corona dope.

		   (9) You are  finished  with  the  coil.  It  should  look similar to illustration 2.

		   See illustration 3 for a cutaway view.

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   Illustration 1:

		   ____________________________________________________________________



						 Top View                              Side View

				   __                                            ||
			   ___/--\ ----- 1000 turns #16 magnetwire  ----- __//|
				  |  |                                        __/||
			   ---\__/                                           ||--

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   Illustration 2:

		   ____________________________________________________________________



						 Top View                              Side View

						   ___                              /-------------\
						  \\|//                            / / / | | | \ \ \
						 |\/ \/| --- Outer Layer of #20 ---| | | | | | | | |
						 |-   -|     or #22 magnetwire     | | | | | | | | |
						 |/\ /\|                           | | | | | | | | |
						  //|\\                            \ \ \ | | | / / /
						   ---                              \-------------/

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   Illustration 3:

		   ____________________________________________________________________



									  Cutaway (side) View

					 _____________________________________________________
					/ / / / / // / / // / / / | | | \ \ \ \\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \
				   / / / / / // / / / | | | | _____ | | | | \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \
				  / / / / / / | | | | _______/*****\_______ | | | | \ \ \ \ \
				  | | | | | |  ______/*******=======*******\_______ | | | | |
			 Plastic Donut ---|*******=====================*******| | | | | |
			(hidden by wire)| |*******=====================*******| | | | | |
				  | | | | | |  ------\***** <-\ ======*****/------- | | | | |
				  \ \ \ \ \ \ | | | | -----\   \ === /----- | | | | / / / / /
				   \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ | | | |  |  ^ | | | | / / / // / / / /
					\ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \\ \ \ \  |  | / / / // / / // / / / /
					 ----------------------- ^ |  |   --------------------
				 toroidial Plastic "Donut"----^ | |  \-

				 The ='s represent the inner "hoop".

				 Outer layer of #20 or #22 magnetwire or coil of wire.

				 The *'s represent the wax mixture.


		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   |                    Building The Power Supplies                   |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------



				If you  are unfamiliar with electronics, you may need some help with this section, as I am only presenting the schematics. Here they are:



		   For both 50VDC power supplies:
		  ____________________________________________________________________



						  /---\                                   /\
						  v   |    100V Piv 15A diode            /  \
					   _mmmmm_+__    ___|\|__+__________________/0-15\__+
					  / Variac   )||(   |/|  |  1000 uF @ 80 V  \DC A/
			  =)======        110)||(48     ---  electrolytic    \  /
					  \__________)||(_____  /-\                   \/
			 120 VAC         110V to 48V  \  |-
		   Grounded Plug   10A Transformer \_+__________________________-

						 (2) of these are required. Note that the stepdown transformer must be 50kv isolated.

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   For the 100 KVDC power supply:

		   ____________________________________________________________________



			/---\
			v   |
			_mmmmm_+__
			____________________+___________+____________________
			| Variac   )||(                   _|_        _|_ HV
			|       110)||(8-10KV       |/    \ /14KV PIV/-\cap
			|  ________)||(_____________||_   _v_ TV HV   |
			| |       100V to 8-10KV    |\ \   |  Diode   +____+______
			| |      100uA Transformer  ^   \__+          |   _|_     \
		   /___\               800-1000 pf 10KV \   TV HV-^-  \ /TV HV|
		   120 VAC                 capacitor     \  diode/ \  -v-diode|
		   grounded plug                          \      -|-   |     _|_  /\
												   \______+    +  HV /-\ /  \
		   Note that all unmarked parts                   |    |  cap | / 0- \
		   have the same value as their                   | |/ |      +/ 1000 \
			   marked counterparts.                       +_||_+_     |\      /
															|\  \    -^-\ uA /
														 HV cap |    / \ \  /
																|    -|-  \/
																|     |   !!
																\_____/  TV HV
																		 diode

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

		   |                                 Usage                            |

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------



				To connect the power supplies  to  the  coil, connect the wires leading out of the donut (from the inner coil) to one  50  VDC power supply.

				The polarity, at this stage, does not matter.
				
				Next, connect the leads from the outer coil to the other 50 VDC power supply.

				Do NOT turn either of them on! Now, connect one of the leads of the inner coil  to  one  terminal of the 25-100 KV power supply, and connect one lead of the outer coil  to the other terminal of the 25- 100 KV power supply.

				Thats it!

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

				Now, the hard part. You will have to figure  out  some  way  of modulating the fields.  This  could  be  done  through stepper motor control of the variac, or through  the  insertion  of  a  probe coil (probably just a  ferrite  rod wrapped with a few hundred  turns  of wire) into the center of the donut hole.

				This would  then  be  modulated  with  whatever electromagnetic signal you'd want to impress upon the field.

				Through careful experimentation,  you should be able to produce some very interesting effects, such as extreme gravity,  bending  of metal within the field, spontaneous materialization of ?, etc.

				Note that  the  purpose  of  the  wax  is  to  act  as a molten dielectric, so don't be surprised when it starts boiling.

				Thats why the donut form must  be made out of thermosetting (or any kind that  doesn't  melt near the temperature  of  boiling  wax) plastic.

				Have phun,  and don't do anything you wouldn't want perpetuated throughout your subjective reality!



											 (_>Shadow Hawk<_)

		   ====================================================================

		   |Call these fine boards:                                           |

		   |

		   | Ripco                                            (312)-528-5020  |

		   | Wildfire                                         Invitation Only |

		   | Pirate 80                                        (304)-744-2253  |

		   ====================================================================

		   ********************************************************************

		   Appendix to the above paper..............by Joseph John Misiolek

		   ********************************************************************



		   There are two modifications to the  above  device  which should make the effect of the unit more powerful, while at the  same time making

		   it more safe for the operator to conduct his/her research.

		   1.  In place  of  the  wax  in  the  coil  being  used  as a "molten dielectric", it would be advantageous to use Glycerine instead.
		   
			   The "scorch field" set up between the two coils using the 25- 100kvdc supply  will  be  approx.  25 times greater in intensity than with the wax.

			   While the dielectric constant (k) of wax is less than 3, the (k) of Glycerine is about 56.

			   Also, the semi-liquid state that  Glycerine  maintains  at  room temperature will  prove  to  be an effective heat-sink  for  the inner coil.  Glycerine is an emollient, and can be obtained from most drug stores.

		   2.  The Modulator  coil (250-300 turns) on ferrite core to be placed into the interior of the coil shall be replaced by a coil larger in diameter than the outer coil  of  the present unit (as herein described) and shall be placed outside the units' outer coil.

			   This will   give  a  more  stable  field  configuration,   while confining the  gravitational  effects  to  the  interior  of the device.

			   These two modifications, while increasing the units' power, will also provide a level of safety  not  to  be  had in the original design.

		   A word of caution! --------

			   While operating this device, it would be wise to  secure  a non- interruptable power supply for it.

			   If, while  the fields were at their maximum output, the power to the coils  were  to  be suddenly  interrupted,  a  very  serious condition could  arise  as  the  distorted region  of  spacetime surrounding the  coil "cut-loose" into the surrounding spacetime beyond the coils influence.

			   A "pulse" of distorted spacetime  might, under these conditions, leave the coil at high velocity, and inflict great damage to the surroundings near the coil.  (Including the operator)

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------

						  DON'T SAY THAT YOU WEREN'T WARNED!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

		   --------------------------------------------------------------------
	

Compute Simulation and Cellular Automatons

It is entirely preferable to do physical experiments, as these are effective and real evidence which can confirm the conclusions proposed in this document. However, there is also the possibility of more easily demonstrating some systems and results using computer simulation, which could demonstrate the feasibility of complex concepts with less expenditure and effort.

Specifically, remarkable results could be achieved by putting the simple relationships proposed herein into cellular automaton like simulations. In which these three field axis, governed by the Unified Field characteristics could be shown to interact. For the most interesting results we would propose the existence of 5 characteristics or dimensions, represented in either a 2-dimensional slice or 3-dimensional volume. There is certainly in these concepts a way to simply demonstrate the interaction of matter in ways similar to galactic, solar, planetary and atomic interactions which are observed. Although potential has been seen in this, the skill and programming knowledge necessary to implement is not something we posses.

Evolutionary Approach to Synthetic Biology - Zen and the Art of Creating Life. Thomas S. Rayhis

A cellular automation is a unique program which uses very simple rules to generate extremely complex patterns and behaviours. The idea is a "pixel" or "square" will turn on or off, depending only on the state of the neighbors in contact with that square. The rules for a cellular automaton, set how many adjacent squares must be on for the cell to turn on and how many adjacent squares must be on for the cell to turn off.

Despite this very simple rule structure and underlying simplicity, remarkable behaviours results such as the ability to replicate patters, the production of random patterns, and even life like behaviours. Cellular automaton have even been proven to be turing complete, in that the "Game of Life" rules, were shown to be capable of creating computer logic, which in turn can be developed to the point, the "Game of Life" can run the "Game of Life" within itself.

You can see more types of cellular automaton, examples and further links and information using the following link: Cellular Automaton Demo

The following is an actual 2D cellular automaton running a unique rule we discovered which generates random, mandala like patterns which never repeat.

We see in the work of Stephen Wolfram an effort to describe the behaviour of the entire universe based on this concept of cellular automaton, in which even when the underlying rules for a system are extremely simple, the behavior of the system as a whole can be essentially arbitrarily rich and complex. However, what we find is Stephen Wolfram, despite having an excellent idea with tremendous potential, is essentially blindly throwing darts at a board in the hope to find some rule structure which describes reality. It is our own opinion, that such a simple structure exists, and that is must be based on some fundamental field metric of space and time. Rather than blindly guessing at what that field structure is, as Wolfram and his associates are doing, we should realize the rule are already laid out in front of us, in the existing relationships between the forces of nature. What has been missing though, is the full three dimensional relationship of the fields.

We have focused on this idea of electric, magnetic and gravitational forces, then added additional forces like the strong and weak forces when our existing understanding did not serve to explain all the phenomenon. With the understanding there is a "Unified Field of Force" in which momentum and physical forces are conveyed by a more fundamental field, we find a much more solid framework within which to approach the construction of a set of simple rules required for Stephen Wolfram's solution.

We see it is this relationship between a more fundamental field of force and the electric and magnetic fields, which leads to all structure in the Universe. The three dimensional relationship between these three fields, is what defines the energy contained in any region of space, and this relationship is beautifully simple. Applying the relationship between these three fields, and how they determine the volume, energy, motion and character of any region of Space/Time, sets a very solid foundation upon which Stephen Wolfram's structural logic can be built.

Finally We May Have a Path to the Fundamental Theory of Physics… and It’s Beautiful

Thus far "cellular automaton" concepts are the simplistic, pure systems which can demonstrate the concept of "replication", which is absolutely an essentially character of the Universe. This feature alone, shows the immense promise of cellular automaton simulation and its deep underlying connection to reality.

One of the problems with Stephen Wolfram's work, is the focus on "computation" as the solution, as computation requires the idea of "discrete" space and a linear progressive flow of time and events. The reality suggested by the Unified Field theory, is far more nuanced and inclusive. Within the Unified Field theory, space can be both discrete and continuous. The notion of space being discrete, is a special case within a more general space composed of fields which are continuous. Discrete packets of energy, form from specific situations within the fields of space. That is in reality, each cell within the Universal cellular automaton, can have a different time and density of energy when compared to other regions. There is in a sense a Universal clock, defined by the speed of light, but due to the density of energy within separate regions, thus different gravity, time flows differently in different regions. Thus we need a cellular automaton in which individual cells may experience different rates of time then their neighbors. Another difficult but necessary character which must be included, is each cell is a sort of hologram of the whole and many cells can thus give the appearance of a larger greater cell. There is a sort of recursive character and holographic character, which is difficult to emulate with a cellular automaton. Were we able to include such notions in our automaton, great strides could be achieved. At that point, then a computational algorithm could be entirely successful at describing reality, but beyond that it can no hope of explaining how its algorithm came to be nor what it is itself composed of.

Further, although we see in the cellular automaton and computational algorithm's the production of random behaviour, this is not truly random, in that if we started again from the same starting conditions the exact same 'random' result would be achieved. Within the Unified Field theory, we are faced with a situation in which things are again both deterministic but also non-deterministic. It is deterministic in the sense, we can assume knowledge of the initial conditions and thus from that, even randomly appearing situations can be determined.

However, at a deeper more fundamental level, determining those initial conditions exactly is impossible, as we cannot possibly determine every possibly characteristic of the initial state and can only make an approximation. Thus even within a theory considered deterministic, it is only such from a certain, relative perspective that this is true. There is always a probability of something entirely unpredictable occurring. Like the three body problem or the incompleteness theorem.

Computational algorithm will always be faced with the halting problem of sorts, however instead of knowing whether the computation will halt, we are just uncertain if it will every solve, simulate or predict the outcome we are expecting. Although computers can simulate random behaviour, no algorithm can truly be random. All algorithm starts from some known condition and rely on some random seed into that condition to be truly random. Thus any grand theory of everything which is based on a computational algorithm, would still require some 'non-computational' seed, to fire it all off.

Falling Magnet Experiments and Magnetic Levitation

Boyd Bushman, a former secret projects aerospace engineer, discusses an interesting thing, a simple experiment which can be performed with two dropped masses from a height. He takes two strong magnets and attaches them together against their repulsive magnetic forces and then puts them inside a sphere of some sort. He then has another sphere of similar weight, with no magnets, or with magnets connected together in their attractive state. He takes both spheres to the top of a building and drops them off at the same time repeatedly. The one with the opposed poles always fell slower than the other. This is contrary to any known understanding of gravity and electromagnetism.

We would expect this result from the Unified Field theory. Two magnets forced together against their forces of opposition represents a different total energy state than two magnets connected by their forces of attraction. One is clearly more entropic than the other, as this is why there is even forces of attraction and forces of repulsion at all. This effect would be very weak though, requiring very strong magnets to have a detectable effect over any reasonably measurable fall distance. Performing this experiment accurately is also much more difficult than it would appear.

We would need to create two very similar objects, one with magnets locked together in opposition and one with the magnets allowed to connect through natural attraction. What ever mechanism is used to hold the magnets together in opposition needs to also exist in the second case. The total mass of both systems should be made as identical as possible. The shapes of the two systems and preferably spherical to eliminate any differences in fall speed due to different aerodynamic forces. There would need to be no metals at all anywhere close to the experiment, not involved in the release mechanism. A release mechanism would need to be constructed to very accurately time the release of the objects. A laser sensor or some other electronic detector could be utilized to time the top and bottom of the fall. The longer the fall distance, the greater the effect should be. An indoor location would isolate wind or external factors and provide a set temperature.

We would conclude none of these issues are insurmountable to resolve and a very accurate experiment could be developed. Many attempts have been tried, but still there is no definitive answer to this apparent simple situation. Established physics seems to ignore the problem, maintaining current theory does not support any result would occur, thus no experiment even need be performed. Yet, our understanding of energy, electromagnetism and physical forces expects there is a significant different between these two cases and an experiment is justified.

"In this work, we measured the magnitude of forces raised in the free fall of high magnetic field coupled magnets. By using a highly accurate accelerometer connected to the falling magnets, we measured unexpected and weak decreasing or increasing in the local gravity acceleration which has no traditional explanation, indicating the possible influence of quantum mechanisms as responsible by the anomalous effect. We also propose a simple model based on the generalized quantum entanglement hypothesis which applied to that physical system provides us the magnitude of such a macroscopic force as originated by the microscopic magnetic dipoles constituting the magnets. The new results corroborated the positive results of previous experiments and are consistent with the validity of our theoretical forecast. - New experimental evidences of anomalous forces in free fall locked magnets. Porcelli, E.B., Filho, V.S. New experimental evidences of anomalous forces in free fall locked magnets. Eur. Phys. J. Plus 137, 128 (2022).

This effect is not unexpected, but the exact mechanism and detailed experimentation has not been fully or rigorously tested by established physics. There is much more to this than people realize. Physics discussion on the effect - physics.stackexchange.com. It is clear the mass of an object does not change, but we would expect some change in the 'weight' or 'gravitational acceleration' of a free-falling magnetic object, and should see different results for magnets opposed and forced together, versus magnetic attracting, if mass, air friction, shape, timing of drop, distance of drop and all other variables are taken into consideration.

Commentary on New Experimental Evidences of Anomalous Forces in Free Fall Locked Magnets - by Elio Porcelli. Department of Physics, H4D Scientific Research Laboratory, São Paulo, Brazil

Some additional magnetic experiments of interest.

Magnets Suspended Gravity - Popular Mechanics

Small permanent magnets will be levitated above a larger rotating permanent magnet. A simple example of magnetic levitation previously unknown.
Magnetic Levitation by Rotation - Joachim Marco Hermansen, Frederik Laust Durhuus, Cathrine Frandsen, Marco Beleggia, Christian R.H. Bahl, and Rasmus Bjørk. Phys. Rev. Applied 20, 044036 – Published 13 October 2023

Rotating Superconductors

Don't forget about Eugene Podkletnov, Ning Li and Amy Eskridge. We would be remiss to not discuss these three people. All three have been heavily involved in modern research into gravity. Two, Ning Li and Amy Eskridge are now deceased, but Eugene Podkletnov is still working in the field.

The focus of their work is on various means to better understand gravity, and the primary mechanism they were utilizing were medium sized ( >10 cm ) superconducting disks rotated at high speeds. Eugene Podkletnov has said the large size of the superconducting disk is important to the results. The result is an apparent loss of some percentage of weight of materials suspended over the superconducting disks. Eugene Podkletnov has gone on to develop further experiments, one in which he has created a device which he purports will fire a beam of a 'gravitational' like energy some distance away from the device. It is a short lived effect, not a continuous beam like a laser, but is detectable at large distances from the device.

Diagram of Podkletnov Superconducting, Rotating Ring Experiment

We do not find such devices in contrast to the ideas of a field of force and in fact see the potential to better explain the behaviour of such devices using such an understanding. We could readily propose such rotating superconductors are capable of aligning or reducing the general energy in the region surrounding the superconductor, which as we have suggested is one of the key components to producing an anti-gravitational like effect. We have pointed out the key to anti-gravity is developing a means by which you can use energy, to reduce energy. A superconductor would be a good candidate for the discovery of such an effect.

We have in superconductors, some very unique behaviours, in that they as their name implies, conduct electrical current with zero resistance. Due to this, they are capable of creating or sustaining very strong electrical fields and the associated magnetic effects which come with that. We are well aware, superconductors will suspend themselves very efficiently in the presence of a magnetic field, even experiencing a phenomenon called "quantum locking" in which they are not only repelled or expel a magnetic field, but appear to lock into a specific position within such a field. The simple explanation provided for this result, is for a superconductor to move in a magnetic field, it would need to thus generate an infinite current, and so any movement is 'locked' or prevented. Likely, tiny movements do occur, which immediately generates a large eddy field, contrary to the existing magnetic field, which immediately opposes the motion.

"Someone in the laboratory was smoking a pipe, and the pipe smoke rose in a column above the superconducting disc. So we placed a ball-shaped magnet above the disc, attached to a balance. The balance behaved strangely. We substituted a nonmagnetic material, silicon, and still the balance was very strange. We found that any object above the disc lost some of its weight, and we found that if we rotated the disc, the effect was increased." - Eugene Podkletnov

Diagram of Podkletnov Experiment

Due to the very cold temperatures required for the superconducting effect to appear in superconductors, their material is already put into a very low energy state. In rotation, a superconductor would experience the inertial effects of this angular rotation and thus produce some degree of magnetic and electric field, just due to the motion in Earth's natural magnetic and electric fields. If the result of these generated fields, served to oppose or cancel these natural fields to any degree, we would indeed be creating a region of 'reduced energy' which as we have predicted, would cause an anti-gravitational type of effect. As we have discussed, the preferred terminology would be to call this a buoyancy effect similar to the buoyancy of a hot air balloon.

As previously explained, a hot air balloon is reducing the total energy contained within its volume, which is counter-intuitive as it is "heating" the air. We should realize though, this hot air takes up more volume and this additional volume is allowed to escape the volume contained by the hot air balloon, it being open at the bottom, thus there ends up being less total air, less total mass and thus less total energy overall in the system. We could speculate, due to the cold temperatures, rotation of the superconductor and its size, there is a similar reduction in the total energy of the system, which in this case would include the immediate space surrounding the superconductor. This reduction of energy, if sufficiently large, could be responsible for the resulting "anti-gravity" force being detected in these experiments.

As we have proposed, there may be numerous means by which we can achieve a situation where the energy of a volume of space is reduced enough to provide significant forces. In a gravitational field, such forces result in a force opposing the normal gravitational force.

We would here emphasize this is not really what we would call an "anti-gravitational" force, because buoyancy is a force due to gravity. Gravity causes the increase in density or pressure of the medium which provides the buoyant force upward, when something lighter than that medium exists within it. A pure "anti-gravitational' force provided by reduced energy, is a force caused by the energy within space itself, a sort of spatial pressure, which acts in a similar way to water or air under gravitational pressure. There is a significant different though with spatial pressure, in that what we would call the higher or denser region is outside of the mass, and mass actually represents a region of lower or less dense spatial pressure. Thus it is not so much "anti-gravity' but is more of just a reduction in the gravitational attraction of a volume of space relative to some local normal value.

We see a remarkable correlation between these, purported "fringe" physics ideas of a means to effect gravity using special arrangements and design of electromagnetic coils, and the other experiments discussed here. Specifically, we see the reports of rapidly rotating superconductor able to produce some gravitational like force and the device described herein as the Varo disk, to be so similar to the 'Gravity Field coils' it cannot be purely coincidental. It really appears as well, the coils used to impart rotation to the superconductor, appear to be so arranged to cause a rotating or circular magnetic field, which is the identical situation to many of these other experimental situations.

A the reality of a connection between electricity and gravity as defined by the Unified Field theory, implies such experimental results must exist and herein we find examples and discussion of just such experimental results. Can we continue to discount this connection, when we find such obvious and repeated demonstrations of its physical reality?

The Varo Disk

Gravity Field Coils

(1 of 5)Rare Podkletnov Interview
A great 5 part interview of Finnish scientist Eugene Podkletnov and his ideas about gravity manipulation.

A possibility of gravitational force shielding by bulk YBa2Cu3O7−x superconductor - by E. Podkletnov, R. Nieminen. On ScienceDirect.com. Direct Download

Bose-Einstein and Anti-Gravity - Article discussing the work of Ning Li

Anti-gravity Effect? Gravitational Equivalent Of A Magnetic Field Measured In Lab - ScienceDaily

A Historical Perspective on Anti-Gravity Technology - Amy Eskridge.

NEXUS Magazine- Antigravity - Holy Grail of the 21st Century - Archived NEXUS Magazine website at cruinthe.tripod.com/nexus/index.html

Growing plants in the Dark

Say what? Don't plants require light for photosynthesis to produce the energy they need to live?

Yes, this is true, but what this idea refers too, is there may be additional properties of light, which are what the plants are actually utilizing. Properties which are transmitted through matter, even when we do not detect the normal visible light we are aware of. This interesting idea coincides with our ideas of a Unified Field as we are here discussing being able to transfer the Unified Field wave energy to the plant, despite eliminating the electromagnetic field components of the light.

That is there is a component of energy which exists in our Universe which is non-electromagnetic, yet definitely related to electromagnetism, and it is in reality this energy which is used in photosynthesis, not the electromagnetic energy. Thus if this experiment works as described, it is a very simple way to demonstrate an "unknown" field mechanism in nature.

The experiment is relatively simple to perform, but attention must be paid to the details and understand what the goal is. We can take two boxes, insulating, non-conductive with sufficient air, humidity, temperature for plants to thrive, so the only limiting condition on the success of the plant, is its exposure to light. Both boxes should be light tight, so that the interiors are kept completely dark.

We note in Thomas Heironymus's original description of the experiment, he used foil inside the box, connect by a wire to an elevated platform upon which additional foil was placed. The bottom of the box, was also a layer of foil, connected by a wire to an Earth ground. He points out the external foil collectors, should be raised from the ground some distance. The internal foil which is grounded, should be in direct contact with the bottom of the soil in which the plant is grown, not just a pot placed on top of it. Foil could be place in the bottom of the pot and a wire run to ground which would serve the same purpose.

We could consider a possible improvement to the experiment, in light of our knowledge of the Field of Force and its character. In the improvement, we suggest using two metal plates on both the inside and the outside of the boxes. One metal plate being on the inside of the box, secured to the top. The other metal plate be outside, exposed to the Sun, elevated off the ground by a minimum of 3 meters. The two metal plates must be connected together, through the wall of the box to the outside, with a solid metal conductor of a greater thickness than simple wire, like a 1cm or 1/2 inch diameter solid metal rod.

This rod can be bent or curved so as to travel between the inside and outside plates and should be fastened centrally and perpendicular to the metal plates. The final construction of metal should be as if it is all one solid piece of metal, with no gaps or spaces between any parts of the plates and connecting rod. If we then expose both boxes to the Sun( not electric or any other artificial source of light ), of course carefully monitoring other conditions such as heat and temperature so as the conditions within both boxes remain the same, we can monitor the growth of the plants placed within these boxes.

We consider that what we are transmitting from the Sun outside to the plant inside the box, is not so much electromagnetic energy, but a mechanical longitudinal energy, akin to a sound wave. Thus what we are attempting to convey, is a sound like energy from inside to outside, not light or electromagnetism. Thus although a simple wire may be capable of doing this, we would expect a greater effect would be accomplished by a solid material through which such longitudinal energy would more readily propagate.

What we will find, is the plant in the box without the metal plates, will die or shows signs of lack of light exposure, the same as any plant kept in the dark. However, the plant in the other box will survive. Despite no visible light reaching it, the plant in the metal box will receive enough energy to power its photosynthesis and remain alive.

This experiment is included here it point out there are energies and forces effecting living things, our lives and environment, we currently do not account for. Since we do not consider and are not aware of these other fields in nature, we do not consider the effects their existence may have on a body. That is we may even be producing harmful versions of this energy around us, in our environment and in our homes. Further there may be places where either greater or lesser forms of this energy exist on Earth's surface, which way have beneficial or harmful benefits to our health or the health of other living things. We may be able to amplify or reinforce this energy to benefit our bodies and exposure to destructive potentials of this energy may harm us.

The existence of this additional energy, may prove very beneficial to efforts to grow plants in environments different than their natural ones. We find it difficult to grow certain plants in farms or locations different from their natural habit, despite all efforts to reproduce all the same conditions as well as we can. It may be this last component, and understanding of another Field of Force, which was missing from our efforts.

The first step is to acknowledge and prove this Unified Field exists, and once we accept its existence only then can we begin to apply it to food production, environmental improvements, even medicine and health. If this simple experiment to grow a plant in the dark works, then we begin to realize we have missed something very important in our understanding and there is much more to learn.

Growing Plants in the Dark
by T. Galen Hieronymus

Radiations from each of the known elements of matter produce some form of energy, probably electrons which can be made to flow along electrical conductors. The flow from each of the elements having characteristics different from the others. Conversely, the flow of electrons along a conductor produces a radiation having characteristics of the radiation from each respective element.

Such of the known elements as are required to feed growing plants have been transmitted to the plants through metallic conductors as the plants were entirely isolated from the elements upon which they were fed. More precisely, seeds were planted in boxes in a darkened basement room.

One of the boxes of plants containing some of the seeds was used as a control and no apparatus for transmitting element radiations thereto provided. The remaining boxes of plants had electrodes or plates of conducting material mounted or otherwise disposed adjacent thereto, and each box of plants was separately attached to a conductor extending to a point outside the building where electrodes or plates were attached to the conductors and allowed to remain exposed to the light.

Such of the known elements as required to impart normal characteristics to the plants were apparently fed thereto by having the radiations of the elements from the light conducted to the plants through the wires and associated electrodes.

The treated plants were relatively healthy but the control plant assumed the characteristics of growing vegetation which has been deprived of the elements in natural light. Particularly was the control plant devoid of chlorophyll while the remaining plants were green. - T. Galen Heironymus

How to Grow a Plant in the Dark

J.G.: .....Lets get back to your experiment in transmitting solar energy in a darkened room by wire. Exactly what did you do and what happened?

Hieronymus: All right. I made eight small boxes: two-by-two-by-four inches long, without tops or bottoms. Before tacking on the base, I put in pieces of aluminum foil slightly larger than the bottom and did the same for the top, except that the lid was raised about a half inch above the box. The top and bottom on the inside was covered by aluminum foil. In my basement workshop, which was lightproofed, I connected the bottom plate to a water pipe with copper wire and ran another wire from the top plate to the outside of the basement where Id built two shelves. Seven of the boxes were wired to metal plates outside in the sunlight -- also on shelves built onto the house. The eighth was a control, not connected to anything. On the first wire I soldered a plate two-by-two inches, the second to a metal plate four-by-four inches, the next to a plate eight-by-eight inches, and another one to a plate sixteen inches square. To the next three grounded wires I soldered two-by-two, four-by-four and eight-by-eight inch copper screening -- to see whether there'd be any difference in the results from the solid plates than from the screen mesh . . .

J.G.: Was there . . .?

Hieronymus: Don't get ahead of me now. I sifted and mixed some soil and put an equal amount in each box, then planted ten oat seeds in each box-- two rows of five each, so that I knew exactly where they were and could tell which were growing and by how much. Each of the eight boxes were identical, with exactly one-half inch of soil over the seeds. The only difference was in the size and texture of the plates outside connected by wire to the aluminum sheets inside the tops of the boxes. I watered each box daily with exactly the same amount of water, which I applied with a salt shaker. As the plants grew inside these dark boxes, I raised the lids to allow them more headroom, but still kept them lightproof, and kept exact records of when the plants broke through the soil . . . Remember now, these plants were in absolutely dark boxes which were located inside dark shelves in a dark basement. The oat seedlings were totally divorced from light.

J.G.: But you had one control -- a box of seeds with aluminum foil at the top and bottom that wasn't wired or connected to anything, right? What happened?

Hieronymus: They all sprouted at the same time and were about the same degree of sturdiness. But then something entirely different and, as far as I was concerned, unexpected actually started happening. There was chlorophyll in every plant that was wired to the outside plates, but the control box plants remained a pale yellow -- almost white.

J.G.: Fascinating. Has this experiment been duplicated by others?

Hieronymus: Yes, although when it was first published, one of the early experimenters deviated from my explanation in two serious ways: first, he didn't light-seal several big windows in his basement and second he laid his plates on the ground instead of elevating them six feet on outdoor shelves, so he got no potential differential, or antenna effect. This was corrected in later experiments and in each case the results coincided with my own.

J.G.: What about differences in size and texture of the outdoor plates? What results?

Hieronymus: That's the interesting thing. The amount of sunlight falling on any given area is measurable. For analogy, you can use an optic lens to concentrate sunlight to scorch or burn paper; well sir, the plants connected to the largest plates outside in the sunlight not only generated green coloring, they also gave every appearance of having been subjected to scorching sunlight -- as if they'd been singed or burned! The next largest plate yielded better plants and the next was about what you'd expect normally from normal exposure to sunlight. The others especially the ones connected to the screening, were less green, and the one connected to the smallest piece of screen was yellowish.

J.G.: It seems inconceivable that photons can be transmitted through a wire.

Hieronymus: Oh, I doubt that the energy is visible sunlight; in fact I suspect were dealing with a form of energy from the sun that is probably non-electromagnetic in nature. This concept represents the entire thrust of the work Ive been doing most of my life. - interview with Thomas G. Heironymus

Thomas G. Heironymus Machine

Eloptic Energy - Thomas G. Heironymus

The Ancient Discovery of Levitation

Here on we are going to focus our attention and researches upon references from a book, specifically:
The Case for the UFO by Morris K. Jessup. The Varo Annotated Edition. The Varo Annotated Edition of the Case for the UFO by Morris K. Jessup

The book, "The Case for the UFO" by Morris K. Jessup, came out in 1955 and there is a great deal of controversy, discussion and background behind this book. There are many unusual circumstances surrounding its author, his suicide and a great deal of speculation on the authors of the annotations within. Despite many peoples dismissal of the entire UFO subject, "The Case for the UFO" is a substantial, sincere and scientific effort to investigate the phenomenon of UFO's. We would consider "The Case for the UFO" one of the best books on the subject of UFO's.

We find a tremendous amount of support, correlation and confirmation of the ideas of the Unified Field and a "Field of Force" within this book. There is a great deal of disinformation and skepticism regarding this book and attempts to outright dismiss its contents as fantasy and entirely made up. These dismissals tend to revolve around discrediting the book based on the character flaws of one of the people involved in annotating the book. However, within this book and its annotations we find information, evidence and descriptions of technology which can stand quite independently from the character of the authors.

In he quotes The Philadelphia Experiment: A-Z, The Varo Edition - by Andrew Hochheimer, some personal who were involved with and read this annotated edition of The Case for the UFO and stated, "the eventual conclusion of all concerned, including the men at ONR, was that the annotations made no sense at all.. Indeed this seems to be the whole focus of Andrew's work, is to discredit the points made by Carlos Allende as nonsense.

However, as we have pointed out in numerous places within our discussion of the Philadelphia Experiment above and our deep investigation of Albert Einstein's Unified Field concept, these comments are far from nonsense. Many may conclude these annotations are nonsense, because at the time they would have had no knowledge of the Unified Field concept or context within which to understand them, but because some did not understand does not mean there was not something true within the words.

Prior to the early 1940's, annotations or words discussing the ability to split atoms to make a super weapon would have been just as readily considered nonsense. Prior to public knowledge of the reality of the atomic bomb, to tell someone splitting an atom to cause a huge explosion would sound insane. Andrew Hochheimer's research, although extensive and commendable, ignores the tremendous amount of technical information contained in these annotations and the reports from the Philadelphia Experiment itself. We have shown and will further show here, how these annotations are far from nonsense.

We can confirm the book is real as we special ordered an original leather bound copy through the University of Alberta special library collections branch many years ago. After nearly 6 months of waiting, we held an authentic, leather bound, original print of the book, which apparently arrived from the University in Quebec. Although lithographed from the original typed copy of Jessup's original version, upon which the annotations were hand written, the annotations is this version were typed in different colored ink and the redactions appeared as large blacked out blocks, not as simple cross out text as some imply.

It was one of the most fascinating UFO books we have ever read, for even if you completely disregard the annotations and read only "The Case for the UFO" it is one of the most clearly written, scientific speculations on the UFO phenomenon ever written. The annotations within are what take this book to the next level. Highly recommended reading if you are interested in the subject.

After publishing his book, the story goes, Morris Jessup received a copy of his own book in the mail. The margins and space between paragraphs was thoroughly marked up in hand written pen by some individual or individuals whom provided commentary and further insight regarding Morris Jessup's theories and speculations. The annotations seemed to show a much deeper knowledge of the subject material and provided a great deal of clarification, broader answers and confirmation of the authors conjectures. The suggestions made by the annotations were remarkable and even claimed knowledge of supposed top secret military experiments in which Morris Jessup was involved. This led Morris Jessup to contact the military, showing them the book, whom ultimately had the Varo company reprint the book, including the annotations, for wider dissemination within their ranks.

Many claim the annotations are complete nonsense and attempt prove they were entirely the ramblings of a mentally unwell Carlos Allende but this seems to be an attempt to misdirect and downplay the significance of the book. We would point out, at one time this book held enough interest in its time for the military to make copies, at a significant labor and cost. Despite the latest explanation of the military stating this reprint was done, without their involvement, for personal interest by a few people, we should remember at this time as it would have to have been hand typed and lithographed, a time consuming and expensive process for someone to undertake out of there own pocket, especially on a military salary. Further, the the military ultimately redacted some of what they must have considered sensitive information from the final publicly released version.

If all that Mr. Allende wrote was nonsense it would seem completely unnecessary to cover it up and make such a big deal of it. Surely the book should have just ended up in the trash can if it was indeed complete nonsense. Once again though, let us come back to our primary goal here, we will continue to look for those points and notes which are technical and scientific and thus can be discussed wholly separate from the character of the authors and credibility of the source who wrote them. This is sharp contrast to most researches who seem more interested in the character of the authors, rather than considering the actual content these authors wrote. It is as if the intention was to draw as little attention to the content and statements of these authors, but instead the intention was to distract and misdirect interest in the subject by focusing on minute details of the character of the authors. If someone speaks a fact, it remains a fact whether that someone ends up in an asylum or not.

In the book "The Case for the UFO" by Morris K. Jessup and its associated annotations, we have a clear account of experimental methods which would provide concrete evidence which can stand independent of the character of the author of these annotations. Despite the attempts at defamation and dismissal of the contents of this book, by claiming it to be the rantings of someone mentally unwell, we find within very concrete and practical examples of technology and scientific methods which can stand quite solidly on their own.

Discrediting the character of an author or artist, is like saying the work of Van Gogh is any less remarkable because he cut off his ear. It is like saying Nikola Tesla's induction motors did not work, because he had a fascination with pigeons and counting the number of peas in his dinner. We should realize, a fact is a fact, regardless of the character of the one who utters said fact.

We can of course go through this book, argue against and discredit this or that statement, pick apart the wording and grammar, discredit the author, discredit the background of the book and so on. What we should be doing is investigating the legitimacy of the content itself, carefully considering the technical aspects described, filtering out the practical and factual. In this book, we not only have a story, we have many clear statements providing reference and evidence, by which we may TEST the validity of the story with real scientific experiment.

The information given in this book, creates a situation wherein we can get hard evidence and verify what was written, to find evidence which not only supports the story but can stand completely independently from the story. Examples appear to be given from which real experiments and apparatus could be built and a reproduction made of the levitation method described. The text within this book describes a real, practical way to demonstrate a principle of levitation which could change our whole understanding of ancient civilization and the UFO/UAP field.

Further, within this book we find even more correlation and support for the presented ideas of a connection between electric forces and gravitational forces. Not just theory, but the means to apply this connection for the purposes of levitation. We find evidence within for a connection between electricity and gravity, as proposed by the Unified Field, for the existence of an additional "Field of Force", that these concepts were used and applied even in ancient times, that they continue to be applied by other civilizations than us today and are a Universal concept available to all peoples.

"What this guy Believes he has knowledge to Prove his beliefs in the Main." - Annotation in The Case for the UFO. p45

Deeper Analysis of an Ancient Means of Levitation

Let us analyze this idea much further. Can we actually reproduce this? How could this even work and why?

We find at once a problem to recreate this demonstration, in that some of the information was redacted, likely for good reason we might add. They essentially dropped a huge clue here and realized it was far too obvious. Can we further analyze the content of this book, to perhaps find some clue to fill in the missing and redacted information? Is there enough information provided to actually demonstrate this concept?

The significance of this principle, if real, could have profound repercussions on all of physics and even other fields of science and knowledge, so at the very least we should take the time to try, rather then dismissing the idea outright due to the character of its author. Is there more information in the book about this principle and idea? Let us dig into this much deeper.

We could consider there are really only a few possibilities for the missing redacted action which once performed upon our disk of magnets, could cause it to "levitate". Obviously, we have never encountered such levitation before in all of our established physics researches, so some new or unusual method is being applied. If such a principle is possible, there is something to its implication which makes it uncommon and must explain why it has not been discover before. There as to be some 'trick' to it, which once understood explains why it works and why established physics could never figure it out. Further, it should tie in with all that we have discussed thus far. It should tie in with our Unified Field concept and the ideas of a "Field of Force".

Simply spinning the disk, would not significantly change these disks fields and thus seems unlikely to cause it to levitate. The ancients would not have been likely to have been able to impart rotation of such a stone to any significant degree, so we can eliminate rotation as the missing action. Although, we find rotation does seem to play a role in modern superconductor gravity experiments. The magnetic fields used to rotate the superconductors appear to coincide with the fields created by a circular pattern of magnets as described in this example. We could also perhaps apply chemicals to the disk, it may require some external influence such as a plate of metal beneath it as in inductive electromagnetic levitation, or perhaps the method is to chant magical words upon it, play a great noise from a bunch of musical instruments as described in the Tibetan Levitation story, but these processes seem unlikely to produce any significant effect. There are likely other possibilities we have not considered. Luckily, on closer inspection of other annotations within the book, we find the clarification and information we need. It is so obvious once found, there is no further speculation required.

Although the process required to cause the magnetic disk to levitate was redacted, within the book we find numerous other quotes and clues which further define the nature and mechanism of this ancient principle of levitation. We find in this book other quotes which clarify and fill in the blanks of the missing information. We find other references to the nature of this "levitation effect", how it is a special case of electromagnetic field, how it was discovered by chance and what other technologies arise from understanding its principles:

• WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A BOLT OF LIGHTING HITS AT A POINT WHERE THERE IS A "NODE" SUCH AS A ''SWIRL" IN THE MAGNETIC SEA OR WHERE A MAG. "DEAD' SPOT" caused by the NEUTRALIZATION OF MAG. SEA contra GRAVITY ESPECIALLY, WHAT, WHEN THE NODE & BOLT BOTH ACT OVER BRONZE INLAY
• "Had Faraday concerned Himself With the Mag. FIELD surrounding his Elec. current. Man today could already Have reached the outermost Parts of our Galaxy."
• That field of Gravity & Magnetic exploration, as yet Untouched,
• "VORTICES, NODES, DEAD SPOTS "traps," = all the same things." pg121
• "or one who doesn't realize the galactic-molecular scope of Einstein's Unified Field theory, 1922-27 " pg171
• "The Muaneans Never knew What an atom was & Niether did the Atruscan-Lems. They only know & knew Force-field work as their top accomplishment & found that throo Inlay work in Metal that the Design had been Hit by Lightning causing it to Have No weight somehow. THEY WENT ON FROM THAT FLOOR Design or floor pattern which may have been Laid in Lodestone for all I know."- p56

When considering these quotes, we should know Mr. Michael Faraday is the originator of our very concept of a FIELD. We have previously mentioned how Michael Faraday was interested and very close to discovering a "common origin" to all forces and fields. Michael Faraday is the one who has contributed most to the terminology and understanding of the mechanisms and interactions of electric and magnetic forces and directly led to our understanding of these as related as a unified electromagnetic field. It is remarkable these quotes refer directly to the work of Michael Faraday and specifically to his investigations of the field surrounding an electric current. This is not coincidental or the rantings of a lunatic.

Video showing Faraday's discovery of the Fields around an Elec current. Faraday's Experiment

Not only is our unit of capacitance the Faraday ( F ) named after him, which is the measure of charge stored in a condenser, Faraday's law describes how a changing magnetic field can induce an electric field and vice versa an electric field can induce a magnetic field. Faraday's discoveries set down and paved the way for our current understanding and industrial use of electric and magnetic FIELDS to essential distribute power to do work anywhere we so desire. Indeed, Quantum Field Theory has taken this to the remarkable conclusion that what we perceive as material solid bodies, are nothing more than fields themselves.

We should know that in this quote, concerning Faraday's investigations of the fields surrounding an electric current, there is a direct correlation to the magnetic fields around lightning and a correlation to this idea of a "magnetic swirl".

Magnetic Field Around Lightning

We see in these quotes, lightning is mentioned a few times as relevant to the discovery of this "levitation effect". To understand the connections and correlations between all these quotes, we will discuss lightning and its associated electromagnetic fields in more detail.

A lighting strike is an electric current which is travelling through a ionized air, a conducting plasma, rather than through a metal wire. Yet the magnetic field surrounding this flow of current through a plasma is the same as the magnetic field which surrounds any electric current. The magnetic field surrounding an electric current, occurs the same whether that electric current flows in a plasma or wire. This is important when we consider the recurring questions and suggestions in the annotations as to what happens when Lighting hits a magnetic swirl in the magnetic sea, a lightning strike leading to the discovery of levitation and lightning applied to a disk of magnets allowing it to levitate.

The magnetic field around a current and thus likewise around a lighting strike is in a circular pattern. The magnetic field circles or we could even say 'swirls' around the electrical current as it flows. The magnetic field around lightning is in a very real sense, a swirl. Thus lightning striking a swirl in the magnetic sea would serve to reinforce or augment this swirl, as it too has a swirling magnetic field. Thus we would have a mechanism whereby a lightning strike hitting a magnetic swirl, would increase the magnitude of that magnetic swirl, it would greatly amplify and augment it.

We see in the case of the ancient magnetic stone, with its circular arrangement of metal the possibility of a similar, pre-existing, circular magnetic field. We see in the quote about a circular arrangement of magnets on a metal plate a similar, pre-existing circular magnetic field. We see in the magnetic field surrounding a current carrying conductor a similar circular magnetic field. We see in the magnetic field around lightning, again the same similar circular magnetic field. Are we clearly pointing out the correlation and connection here? All of these quotes are discussing the exact same arrangement of magnetic fields and electric current. This is not coincidental, nor the ravings of a lunatic. There is logic, a correlation and a connection between the magnetic fields described in all these quotes.

In the context of these correlations of "lightning hitting a magnetic node", the importance of a "magnetic field around a current carrying conductor" and the mention of this ancient discovery of levitation due to a chance lightning strike upon a magnetic stone inlaid with metal, we can make an entirely logical suggestion. Due to this additional information, we are confident to suggest the redacted, missing element in the description of this means to levitate a metal disk with a pattern of magnets, is a lightning strike.

It is interesting to consider this suggestion that a 'magnetic swirl' can be also considered as a magnetic dead spot or a neutralization of the magnetic sea and even more remarkably, such a neutralization can be contrary to gravity in some way.

We can also consider the formal definitions of a Node, and find a Node is the point at which a wave cannot move/transfer energy to the medium. A point of stillness. It is a point, line, or surface of a vibrating body or system that is free or relatively free from vibratory motion or a point at which a wave has an amplitude of zero.

The Power of Lightning for Levitation

Now that we know the full concept, we can consider this case, of lighting hitting a circular arrangement of magnets on a metal disk and attempt to discern why this would cause it to levitate.

Lightning would provide a unique and interesting case, as lightning would provide a huge input pulse of electromagnetic energy which could have some effect as of yet unrecognized. Lightning is a very high amperage flow of current, 5,000 to 200,000 amps, capable of producing very strong magnetic fields.

A lightning discharge's electromagnetic fields are similar to a single wire. A magnetic field circles the flow of current in a wire and a lightning bolt is a flow of current just in a plasma instead of a wire, but the resulting magnetic field would be nearly identical. You can use the right hand rule to show the direction of the magnetic field around lightning, where your thumb point in the direction of the flow of current in the lightning and your fingers curl around that current in the direction of the magnetic field.

Since a lightning stroke is similar to current in a wire, the magnetic field of a lightning stroke exists like concentric circles around the lightning the same as it does around a current carrying wire. Thus the magnetic field around a lightning bolt, does indeed swirl or circle around the lighting bolt.

We know the magnetic field of a lightning bolt, circles around the flow of current in the lightning bolt. Thus the circular magnetic field around the lightning bolt would reinforce or coincide with the circular pattern of magnets on the metal plate. Thus we have a correlation in field direction between the lightning and the plate, which is very interesting.

There is no established science on what happens when you hit a magnetic 'node' or 'preexisting circular magnetic field' with a huge current as exists in lightning. There are numerous hints at a connection between circular or swirling magnetic field and overcoming gravity. We see this exact same connection, between circular magnetic fields and some connection to gravity, in other theoretical cases, devices and experiments discussed in this document. There is definitely something to this.

An interesting reference which postulates an ancient stone circle may have attracted or have been built around a site of repeated lightning strike.
Geophysical Investigation of Neolithic Calamais Landscape

Consider this article which shows a connection between Lodestone and Lightning, saying " ..most, if not all, natural lodestones are produced by lightning strikes." Lodestone is more common on high mountain peaks which are more prone to lightning strikes and that mountain peaks which have magnetic minerals are known to cause compass deviations. Thus it is not unlikely the ancients may have been in these high places searching for lodestone and possibly even building temples there. Magnetism and Magnetite, Lodestones and Lightning by Andrew A. Sicree. Popular Minerology #17

"The leading theory is that lodestones are magnetized by the strong magnetic fields surrounding lightning bolts." Scientists have confirmed this, by getting lightning to strike magnetite containing minerals at high altitudes on mountain tops. Lodestone - Wikipedia

What is certain, is that lightning posses more than enough energy to produce electromagnetic influence of many orders of magnitude. If such high magnitudes of electromagnetic field are what is required for the production of gravitational effects, then we definitely have enough power in lightning. If the circular arrangement of magnets and a circular magnetic field is another requirement for the reproduction of this levitation effect, then lightning and a circular pattern of magnets fit as well.

From this we can see they are associating a magnetic node, or swirl in the magnetic sea, with a point of stillness or lack of field, which is associated with a gravitational node( which must mean a lack of gravitational attraction of field

There seems to be some significance to this number of magnets on this disk and its size. We can consider some further connections between lightning, the Earth and this story. Within the annotations in the book, we find another couple statements which appear to be related to using magnetic fields to levitate objects, even an entire flying saucer, against the force of gravity.

Lightning discharges are considered to be the primary natural source of Schumann resonance excitation; lightning channels behave like huge antennas that radiate electromagnetic energy at frequencies below about 100 kHz. At any given time there are about 2000 thunderstorms around the globe. Thus there are approximately 50 lightning events per second worldwide at any given time. These thunderstorms are directly linked to the background Schumann resonance signal.

We know Earth's circumference is the distance around Earth. Measured around the equator, it is 40,075.017 km. Measured around the poles, the circumference is 40,007.863 km. We know the Schumann resonances are at extremely low frequencies around 7.83 Hz (fundamental), 14.3, 20.8, 27.3, and 33.8 Hz. We can use the formula, velocity = frequency x wavelength. For 7.83 HZ at speed of light 2.98 E 08 give wavelength of 38,058,748 m, this is slightly less that the real circumference of the Earth, due to temperature, diurnal variations, losses, the differing circumference around the equator and other variables. However, we can see how the Schumann resonance occurs due to an electromagnetic wave travelling around the Earth, near its surface. There does not seem to be any associated between these values and the number 324 or 342, but there may be some other wave type they are associating with.

We have read other obscure reference to using electromagnetic fields, which produce some beat frequency at the much lower frequencies of the Schumman resonances, and that these frequencies do play some rule in the gravitational field. That is gravity is some very low frequency wave like phenomenon, like a very low frequency sonic vibration of sorts. Science has proposed the Schumman resonances are powered by lightning. There does seem to be some deeper connection here.

• "A compass "card" Looks Exactly Like a FLYING SAUCER from the top. Looking down on a Large Ships binnacle compass card floating in its Liquid." pg99
• "They break compasses fearing that we may use More then one Bar Magnet and thus fly as they " pg98
• "or one who doesn't realize the galactic-molecular scope of Einstein's Unified Field theory, 1922-27 " pg171
• "directional field induction" pg27
• "Mag. Attractors + Grav. Converters + Force Field Functions " pg26

Ships Binnacle Compass Card

CIA Logo in the Lobby

In order to build this as described, we would need to know the ratio of the mass of the magnets to the mass of the metal, we are only give 900lbs total. But why 324 or 342 magnets? Somewhere in these two numbers is a clue as to the ratio of the two masses, and some way to determine a diameter for the disk as a whole. 342, 324 is the approximate value of the speed of sound in air. 3 x 108 has some significance as ration related to orbital distances and size of the Sun/Earth and Earth/Moon systems. Is there something in the frequency of lightning which is relevant to these numbers. Could we through trial and error or experiment determined the final size of this in order to build it. The obvious assumption is the size, explains why it works as well. It is clearly, due to the size and number of magnets, harmonizing or resonating with something else. Some fundamental frequency inherent to Earth gravitational field perhaps?

Magnets at the time this was written would have been the Alnico type, which were the most widely available at the time. Ferrite magnets were not produced till later, no rare Earth magnets were readily available. Alnico produced commonly in 1931, Ferrite magnets not in widespread production until 1955. Alnico can be magnetized in any direction, withstands high heat and is still magnetic, strong, can be demagnetized. Density of Alnico is 6.8-7.3 g/cm^3. We can guess, each magnet could weigh 2 lbs and the disk itself 252 lb, or each magnet could be 1 lb and the disk itself 576 pounds. Or magnets could be smaller, and the disk larger. Our intuition tells us this disk is quite large, about 2 meters in diameter, which limits the thickness of the metal plate we could use and thus the size of the magnets. A larger, thinner disk, would possibly spread the fields energy over a wider area/volume thus enhancing the power of the levitating effect.

Symbol of propulsion from the book.

We can consider, when lighting hits a magnetic node some sort of electric shock wave, or toroidial plasma doughnut is formed, like a smoke ring from a vortex cannon but in the electromagnetic fields of space. This would require very specific dimensions and arrangements of the components and a significant initializing pulse of energy. Interestingly, such a think is possible as discussed here:

An Electromagnetic Vortex Cannon, Finally! - Sabine Hossenfelder on Youtube

There is further relevant discussion of possible ways to have a stable volume occupied by electromagnetic fields in The Bagel Game paper, linked below. Such an arrangement and energization of intense electromagnetic field energy, may produce a sort of contained energy, which produces forces contrary to gravity. This would be a sort of electromagnetic buoyancy effect, discussed elsewhere.

We find these two papers highly relevant and very interesting as possible mechansims for the stability of ball lightning as likely relevant to the fields possibly contained by the Varo disk device:
The Bagel Game by Bob Greenyer

Electromagnetic Fields Of Current Structures-V02 by N.E. Nevessky

We see a remarkable correlation between these, purported "fringe" physics ideas of a means to effect gravity using special arrangements and design of electromagnetic coils, and the other experiments discussed here. Specifically, we see the reports of rapidly rotating superconductor able to produce some gravitational like force and the device described herein as the Varo disk, to be so similar to the 'Gravity Field coils' it cannot be purely coincidental.

A the reality of a connection between electricity and gravity as defined by the Unified Field theory, implies such experimental results must exist and herein we find examples and discussion of just such experimental results. Can we continue to discount this connection, when we find such obvious and repeated demonstrations of its physical reality?

Rotating Superconductors

Gravity Field Coils

We find in this discussion, the potential for a remarkable, civilization changing discovery. A mechanism and knowledge of fields of force which could have been known and applied, even in ancient times. We find a description of a real, practical method to demonstrate an means by which an electromagnetic device can levitate against the force of gravity. We see the claim such an arrangement of magnets, so empowered by the high current of lightning, can float in the air or levitate against gravity, but we do not find any explanation of the mechanism or reason this is so. Nevertheless, the means and direction for experimentation and research is made crystal clear.

There is an obvious and important physical clue here, with which we can proceed to determine the underlying relationship ourselves. We have here the description of a relatively simple, practical experiment to demonstrate levitation. If this is possible, it represents a breakthrough discovery in physics which is currently unknown and could revolutionize space propulsion.It is certain there is remarkable information here.

We find significant credibility, correlation and confirmation to the logic and science behind this obscure claim of an extremely simple method of producing levitation against gravity with an arrangement of magnets on a metal plate. The concept coincides perfectly with everything we have discussed about gravity and a possible connection to electric and magnetic fields. This is not theoretical musings about the reality of such a connection, but a physical, real, practical demonstration of just such a connection. How can such a breakthrough be ignored by modern science, when it is right in front of their faces!

The Magnetic Toroid Pendulum

If Faraday were to have continue his experimental researches with magnetic fields and their associated forces, would he have discovered the key to a connection between electric field and gravitational field. Specifically, there seems to be a very important connection between the fields surrounding a current carrying conductor and the gravitational field. A simple experiment may demonstrate such a connection. The experiment is as follows:

A simple, toroidial coil is suspended by a thin cord of as long a length as is convenient. Beneath this toroidial coil, as close as is is convenient is placed a powerful permanent magnet( ceramic, ferrite, permanent magnet ). We can then pass a continuous 120 Hz DC pulsation through the toroidial coil, from an unfiltered full wave bridge rectifier connected to AC mains. Predictions suggest such a coil, due to reaction between its magnetic field and the magnetic field of the permanent magnet will be deflected. This deflection should depend only on the centering, balance, levelness or other physical characteristics of the magnetic coil, its means of suspension and the repelling permanent magnet. However, what we find is an unexpected result.

The toroidial coil will seek the same preferred radial direction of repulsion always, as if locked to that position. Reversing the current will lock the coil to the directly opposite radial position. This is unexpected, as we would expect a toroid to have no pole, which would cause such a specific orientation. Even if such a pole existed, its radial direction should be unpredictable or dependent on the levelness or direction of the pole of the permanent repelling magnet beneath the toroid. Instead what we find is the toroid always tends to seek this same preferred direction, even if we re-orientate the toroid, so if it has a magnetic pole, that pole should be moved. Even if we change the levelness or the toroid or angle the repelling magnet beneath. Even if we change the way the wires power the toroid. The toroid always seems to want to repel the magnet beneath, in the same way, in this preferred direction.

Indeed the original expectation of the experiment was a rotation or twisting about the central axis of the toroid or some unbalanced condition whereby the toroid continually sought a balance which it could not attain. A desire to cause some sort of upward motion of the toroid, was the reason for setting up this arrangement. As per the physics of the magnetic field interactions, we would expect some forces from the repelling magnet and the toroid, but the result is not what we would have predicted. This result seems to suggest something unusual and no reference was found for such result or repeat of such experiment in any documentation we were able to ascertain.

One possible explanation was, although the magnetic field of a toroid is theoretically completely contained within the toroid and no magnetic pole should exist, in reality there is slight magnetic pole formed due to the cumulative addition of the electric currents in the coil. Although each loop of the coil, has an electric current produce magnetic field within the coil, the sum of all current loops, causes an apparent current which circulates around the interior of the toroid. This cumulative apparent current, will tend to create a slight magnetic field with orientation through the axis upon which the toroid circles, thus giving the toroid a slight magnetic pole through its axis.

However, we again find it unusual that even if such a pole exists upon the toroid we would expect a similar situation as if we were to suspend a normal permanent magnet in a repulsive state above the first. In such a situation we find a large torque force attempting to 'flip' the magnets into their attractive condition, but also the aforementioned radial force, pushing the magnets away from each other. The problem is there should be no preferred direction to this radial force, so long as the balance, tilt and orientation of the two magnets is balanced.

For example: in such a situation, if we slightly tilted the bottom magnet, so that its pole was angled in some specific direction off axis, we would expect the repelling suspended magnet to prefer this direction. In the case of the toroidial magnet, such tilting of the permanent magnet beneath it, had no significant effect on the preferred direction. Rotating the permanent magnet, even rotating the toroid and the positions of the wires powering it, had no effect on the preferred direction. Thus we must conclude some other effect was at work here.

We should consider the fields within a toroid, may exhibit something akin to a gyroscopic effect, but in relation to the fields effecting them and not due to a physical angular momentum. We speculate on whether the magnetic field force as we understand it, may be a pseudo force and more akin to a fulcrum or axis about which the electric field and field of force act.

We should consider the primary forces as being electric and momentum/force/motion related and that magnetic field is not really a force in its own right. We know the existence of the magnetic field, depends entirely upon the frame of reference and thus all magnetic field forces can be reduced to electric forces. Further we would say the existence of a magnetic monopole is impossible, as herein we would define the magnetic field as a direction, fulcrum or axis not a field in its own right, and by the very definition of this description a magnetic field acts like the mediation or point of reference for inertial frames.

A magnetic field is always a vector direction and thus the existence of a magnetic monopole is entirely equivalent to saying you can have up but not down, left but not right or a front with no back, it is nonsense. We can consider a magnetic field as an indicator of sorts of our local direction of motion, relative to some greater motion outside our current reference frame, and thus it does play a critical role in defining acceleration and inertial forces. The magnetic field is essentially to defining our current inertial reference frame, as any deviation or change in our inertial reference frame, will result in a detectable 'magnetic field'. Thus the magnetic field acts as our primary navigational aid, not just as a compass upon the Earth, but a Universal compass through space/time itself.

We can discuss the rumours of Nikola Tesla's development of what he called his "whirligig" which was essentially a Space/Time navigational device. We can with some accuracy say the concept of navigation owes a great deal to the compass. We have since developed systems of inertial guidance using gyroscopes. Inertial guidance systems utilize gyroscopes rotating in all three axis of our 3rd dimension, thus any motion in any direction will cause some deviation to at least one of the gyroscopes, which can be measured.

Nikola Tesla's 'whirligig' device is similar in concept, but rather than using gyroscopic, spinning mass, it uses circular magnetic fields arranged in all 3 axis, with the system being put in a delicate balance allowing it to freely move. What Nikola Tesla found is this device, would eventually lock into some specific direction, thus providing the direction of the local inertial reference frame. Such a device would be an absolute necessity if one were to ever consider travelling through space/time, or time travel.

Diagram of the Simple Toroidial Coil Magnetic Field Reaction Experiment

The Homopolar Generator Paradox

The homopolar generator gives an important clue to the nature of this tri-field arrangment in space. According to De Has modern experiments the magnetic field of iron resides in the electron spins themselves, but when we rotate a magnet near a disk, we do not see that the magnetic lines of force will move relative to the disk, as if the electrons and their associated magnetic fields are in rotating within the magnet. So there is something wrong with our picture. When we connect the magnet to the disk and spin both, there is not relative motion between the two, and yet we get a result as if now the electrons and there magnetic field are moving with the disk. How puzzling.

It appears as if the magnetic field represents some sort of alignment in space, about which rotation itself occurs, as if the magnetic field direction indicates an axis of rotation.

How to Build a Flying Car

Some further speculation on a possible connection between an electrostatic DC pulsation current which flows outward from the Earth in opposition to gravity. This is related to the Townsend Brown and Nikola Tesla ideas of gravity as the 1st derivative of electric charge. Normally we would never detect this electrostatic connection with gravity, as the rate of change is very slow at only 7.8 Hz. It would be simple to detect this, just some type of electrostatic field detection which can detect such changes in the static field ( the atmospheric electricity ) over these frequencies. Note this is not detecting the Schumann resonance, but a distortion of the static electric field, a DC change, not an AC change.

We find an interesting description of a flying car in the story of Alec Newald, and his book Coevolution. Alec's story is a remarkable one which truly tests our understanding of reality, but we find within so many correlations and similarities to other subjects in this discussion, we feel obligated to include some mention of it.

Consider the following quotes from Alec Newald and how closely they align with this discussion.

• "I now put this information to our great world leaders and keepers of the faith, but if they already know about this (that I now realize they have known about it all along), they should hang their heads low in shame!"
• "Electromagnetic energy naturally surrounds and permeates most planets, including our Earth and the planet I was about to visit. This energy can be used as an endless, inexhaustible power source which is very cheap to access. In the case of my newfound friends, it has been their power source for many thousands or perhaps even millions of years. This energy can be tapped in the simplest of ways with technology we have right here on planet Earth now. Indeed UFOs use this energy source to power their craft when they visit Earth! It is so prevalent that our bodies pick it up unintentionally...."
• "....This power source does not require generators as we know them; hence nuclear, hydro, coal and oil power generators or stations could be dispensed almost overnight. It appears there is no need for wires to transmit this power, for each user could have its own inexpensive receiver, similar perhaps to a radio or a TV. In total the costs would be minimal."
• "The question is, why aren’t we tapping into this power source right now? The right sort of people knew about this back in 1940 - well, in 1900, if you really want to get accurate in reference to scientist Nikola Tesla. There should never be, and should never have been, a power shortage on this planet."
• "The disgust I have with some of my fellow human in powerful positions is the main reason why I did not and I will not cooperate with the planetary establishment when questioned about my experience. I simply do not trust them in any way with any information on any subject, let alone with what I may have picked up in my travels!"
• "...all things, even the energy known to us as atoms, contain a certain level of intelligence."

Within this book, Alec Newald describes a remarkable "car" which could levitate. He describes it as so and provides some picture of both the exterior and a rough sketch of its interior components.

• "The car was of particular interest to me as I've been involved in all aspects of motor-sport back on Earth. It seemed to be capable of immense speed, not that I could have read a speedo even if it had one.... we would have exceeded speeds of 160 kph (100 mph).... it was more like being in a low-flying aircraft."
• "How does this thing work?" I asked. "Part mind-power, part magnetic repulsion," was Zeena's reply.
• "....The car's guidance system had me puzzled. As the vehicle did not actually touch the ground, how did it know how to turn? It was suspended above the road by a form of magnetic repulsion, the details of which I did not get into but which didn't seem all that complex. I'm sure it could be reproduced here on Earth without too much trouble....
• "....the car appeared to be made from a plastic-like material....
• "....The top half was transparent but heavily tinted; the bottom opaque and greyish-brown. I guess you could say it was even vaguely pyramidal in shape, but it had a squashed and stretched-out look compared to a conventional pyramid. There were no wheels, and it sat a few inches above the ground, even though it was not yet in motion. If you could imagine a stealth fighter cockpit without wings, you would not be far off the mark. (Now isn't that a coincidence!)

From these drawings, we can determine quite a bit about the function of this "Flying Car". Specifically, we see within again as we often do very large electromagnetic components, including two 200 KV capacitors and a large, stepped, bipolar Tesla Coil type of device, a battery and some connections to an element on the top of the vehicle. We see the power from the capacitors connected to the primary winding of the stepped, bipolar coil. The car is described as magnetically powered, but we see within the capability to generate very high voltage electric charge. Let us analyze this concept from a purely technical perspective, irregardless of the source from which it originated.

If we have about 200,000 volts being transformed by a magnetic coil. If we have a step up in voltage of only 100 times, this equates to well over 20 million volts being produced in this "car". If the power from these two capacitors is connected in series this potential could be over 40 million volts. This is an extremely high voltage. Thus this simple diagram shows a remarkably simple means to develop a very high electric field. This high voltage field likely plays a key role in the car's ability to levitate. We could consider that if we had an existing electrical charge in the road or surface beneath this car, there would be more then sufficient electrostatic forces to repel the weight of this car against the force of gravity.

Another interesting thing we see on the diagram is a hard to discern mention of the car being "Tune to Gravity" and the value 7 Hz. This is interesting as this value is the approximate value of the Schumann Resonance on Earth. This seems to imply, the electrostatic field which is used to repel this car, is coming from the Earth itself and not from some artificially created field in the road. It is well known there is a significant electrostatic field surrounding our planet at even at the surface of the Earth.

We discuss the atmospheric electricity which exists on the Earth here: Lightning. Linked below is another interesting paper discussing these natural potentials of the Earth in much greater detail. It is noted the surface potential of the Earth is about 200 Volts per meter of height. This is not an insignificant amount of voltage.

The Earth’s Electrical Surface Potential A summary of present understanding - by Gaetan Chavalier, PhD, Director of Research, California Institute for Human Science. Jan 2007

Schumann Resonances - wikipedia

There is an interesting calculation performed by someone to determine the voltage required for electrostatic suspension of 5000 kg of mass. The conclusion of the estimate is it would take 490 billion volts to produce such an effect, however they do concede there may be factors which reduce this value. Interestingly, this value is not too far out from the 40 million volts calculated from the electrical components in this "car". Could factors cause a reduction of 100 times, the voltage produced in the car is another order of magnitude higher, to 400 Million, or is there some other effect involved than just a pure electrostatic effect?

Electrostatic Suspension Calculation - Wikiversity.org

This at first glance may seem too simple a method, but there are many subtle and complex operations by which this mechanisms could overcome gravity.

If we consider this frequency of the electrostatic potential from Earth to Space, or more accurately from Space to Earth, we should think of it not as purely electrostatic or purely an electric current, but as a low frequency direct current pulsation. We can predict the frequency of this pulsation, would be in tune with the Schumann resonance and related to the dimensions of the Earth.

The goal of the system, to get a strong reactance or connection or coupling with this low frequency direct current pulsation. To achieve this coupling, we use a high electrical potential( > 1,000,000 ) which is modulated at the required low frequency, so we have a high voltage which is a direct current pulsation at low frequency. Even though the electrical potential itself may be generated using much higher frequency. This is very similar to how we use a Tesla coil, to create sound waves as demonstrated by Singing Tesla Coils. It is entirely possible to modulate the high voltage electrostatic field of a Tesla Coil, with a much lower frequency, such as the 7-8 Hz frequency of the Schumann resonance.

This seems to be an important key to getting this car to levitate. This also explains why we do not just have high electrostatic fields levitating objects into the air all the time. Not only is a very powerful electrostatic field required, but this field needs to oscillate at a very specific frequency in order to get a strong reaction of the already oscillating natural field of the Earth. In the electrostatic calculations considered previously, the field is considered completely static, but the reality is much different as the Electric Field of the Earth is not purely static. There is a dynamic frequency to this supposedly "static" field, which is measured as the Schumann resonance frequency.

This oscillation is important to consider, as if we are simply using an unchanging static field, no significant effect would ever be noticed. Only by timing the oscillations of this electrostatic field to be 180 degrees out of phase with the natural oscillations of the Earth's electrostatic field, does any significant force develop. This is the well known concept of resonance. In order to impart energy to a child on a swing, you must apply force at exactly the correct time. If you push your hands out, at the same frequency as the child on the swing, but not at the correct phase, your push would go into the air and impart zero energy. Only when you push at the exact correct interval, can you impart the energy. In this case it is the timing of the energy which is very important to achieving a significant reaction.

It is interesting how Alec Newald speculates that this "car" and its levitating mode of propulsion, "could be reproduced here on Earth without too much trouble". Indeed there is nothing significant or overly difficult in building such a high voltage system. The primary problem preventing investigations into something like this, seems to be the established physics community desire to remain the peak of intelligence. As we have demonstrated and discussed at length, an understanding of the gravitational field may be far simpler than we have thus far considered. It is the overcomplication of modern physics which has made the problem more difficult than it needs to be.

Implications of the Unified Field

"When the whole world is running towards a cliff, he who is running in the opposite direction appears to have lost his mind." - C. S. Lewis

There are numerous implications for the concepts of a Unified Field and a "Field of Force" in the Universe. We will here discuss the most interesting connections and implications which could have the greatest impact upon us as individuals and as a civilization.

Conclusion

There are three classes of people: those who see, those who see when they are shown, those who do not see. - Leonardo Da Vinci

Of course what has been presented here is by no means a complete solution, but it is a unique and practical approach with many useful ideas and a great deal of merit. There is definitely much more to this concept, of the existence of a "Field of Force" which is worthy of far deeper exploration and extension. After so much research, reading, exploring and consideration this concept provides a common thread which touches on so many subjects this alone gives tremendous credibility to it. Many theories propose this or that solution, but lack any consideration of the total implications and connection such a theory provides, nor how exactly it solves the numerous unsolved problems in physics, biology and even the social and spiritual sciences. This concept of an additional field, provides a singular unified solution which does suggest new and unique solutions to a multitude of problems. We will attempt to summarize this effort, but of all sections in this work, this section is the one which will be the most dynamic and prone to change.

Let us briefly review some of the relevant ideas from this discussion;

It was demonstrated that Albert Einstein in fact successfully developed his Unified Field theory, but chose to retract it for reasons which are not fully known. Despite the many stating today that Albert Einstein's Unified Field theory was not completed, we find significant evidence it was not only completed and developed to Einstein's satisfaction, but it had been experimentally applied and proven to work. Although there are remnants and pieces of this final theory, the current mathematics describing it are obscure and difficult to determine.

This does not prevent a deeper investigation and potential understanding of what the Unified Field theory was and represented. The very name Einstein used for his theory, the Unified Field, gives an important clue as to the nature and direction by which such a theory can be understood and applied. It can readily be asked, "If such a Unified Field exists, where in nature does it reside?", "In what ways would a Unified Field concept manifest in our reality?" and most importantly, "How would such a Unified Field concept connect with the current fields we are aware of and unify them?" By approaching an understanding of what the Unified Field sought to achieve, we can readily make intuitive guesses as to the nature of this Unified Field and how we could demonstrate its reality.

Through a deeper analysis of the current fields and forces we are aware of in nature, we can develop the form and character of the Unified Field concept.

It is well established electromagnetic fields have momentum. The Poynting Vector is used to calculate the momentum of the Electromagnetic wave. What has been proposed, is not only can we calculate the momentum of the electromagnetic wave, but this momentum and its associated direction through space relative to the electromagnetic field, represents a physical reality in the Universe. That is, electromagnetic momentum not only exists, but it represents an additional, real field in space, a physical "Field of Force" capable of mediating momentum. Thus the concepts of the Poynting Vector and energy of electromagnetic fields leads to the idea of a "Field of Force" through which all physical forces, momentum, acceleration and motion are mediated.

Since space is three dimensional, since the relationship between the electromagnetic field and its momentum exists as a three dimensional arrangement, since we already associate two of these dimensions of space with fields( the electric field and magnetic field ), it is entirely logical to also associate the third dimension of space with a real field. We refer to this third field as the physical "Field of Force" or just the "Field of Force". It was proposed these three fields define space and that space is equivalent or exists entirely due to these fields which define it. The fields are not in space, they are space.

It has been proposed waves can exist in this additional field, which propagate longitudinally and mediate or carry momentum, acceleration and physical forces. Although this longitudinal momentum wave or longitudinal "Field of Force" wave is associated and related to the electromagnetic wave, it is not itself electromagnetic. There would be a full spectrum of waves in the "Field of Force" alongside the electromagnetic spectrum. This would be a phononic spectrum, or a spectrum of mechanical oscillation at all scales.

This requires space to have a third property, similar to permittivity and permeability, denoting the ability of space to propagate pressure like waves. This additional property has been assigned the name, "Impettivity", which represents the property of space to propagate energy of physical impulse, through this "Field of Force". This concept of space being able to convey pressure, does not imply the existence of an Ether, but in fact explains why there is no physical ether. The "Field of Force" acts as the medium or ether through its interrelationship with the other fields of space.

This suggests a deeper connection between the Poynting Vector of electromagnetic fields and the Lorentz forces of electromagnetic fields, in which the momentum of electromagnetic fields propagates as a unidirectional, longitudinal wave through space. Examples were provided of the reality of this momentum or physical nature of the electromagnetic field and the evidence it can be claimed to be a physical "Field of Force". Examples such as the pressure of light and the alternating current conduction pump. Since the electromagnetodynamic field exists throughout all space, from infinitesimally small to infinitely large regions of space, so too does this "Field of Force". It can be concluded there is no region of space devoid of electromagnetic fields and thus by extension there is no region of space devoid of the associate "Field of Force". We found direct evidence for Einstein's intimate knowledge of the momentum of the electromagnetic field, in his design of the alternating current conduction pump with Leo Szilard and also in his explanation of the photoelectric effect as a particle like interaction of electromagnetic radiation.

This concept of momentum propagated as a wave in a "Field of Force", leads to the concept of all physical forces arising from a common origin. All physical force is mediated by changes in this "Field of Force". It is suggested the momentum of the electromagnetic field is the key to relate electromagnetism to gravity, as a sort of bridge between the two forces. We can readily speculate, this concept of a "Field of Force" is the key which allowed Einstein to develop the concept of the 'Unified Field'. The "Field of Force" is more fundamental than the other fields in the Universe. The 'Field of Force' can exist without and prior to any electromagnetic field. This "Field of Force" plays the role of what has been called the "Ether" or medium of Space. Unlike a physical Ether, if the waves carrying this "Field of Force" cease to exist, so does this apparent medium or character of space. Thus the "Field of Force" meets all the characteristics which would be required by a Unified Field. The Unified Field is the sum, total, combination of these three fields in space, the electromagnetic fields and the "Field of Force". This physical "Field of Force" is a single, all pervasive field, non-electromagnetic in character, propagates longitudinally, mediates physical forces, transfers momentum and accelerations and is thus intimately related to inertia and by extension gravity. The concept of a "Field of Force" conveying momentum and physical forces, acts as an intermediate bridge between the forces of gravity and electromagnetism.

We see in the Unified Field theory, this effort to describe all of nature, including solid particles, as fields. We find the interactions between matter, the interactions between solid particles, can be mediated by a field, and such a field provides a mechanism to convey momentum and physical force as a longitudinal wave. We have clarified a mechanism for the mediation of physical force through a "Field of Force" in space, which is related to electromagnetic fields, but in a different spatial dimension from them. Thus within the concept of a Unified Field of Force, resides the ability to define solidity and the particle nature of reality, as the action of a field. We see how this fundamental "Field of Force" has the potential to provide the framework for a common origin and explanation for all the fields and forces we experience.

It should be clarified, the "Field of Force" is not an entirely "new" field, but is more the concept of describing existing physical interactions as mediated through a field. The concept of a "Field of Force" does not introduce anything new to our physics, other than a different perspective on forces, solidity, particles and material interactions which are already well defined. Such a new perspective and different interpretation builds upon existing theory and redefines these fundamental interactions in a way which leads to an enhanced and more unified understanding of the interrelationships. This "Field of Force" has been detected, measured and calculated already, through its interaction with the electromagnetic field, just not ever called for what it was, a field in its own right. These actions were always known to exist, but never associated with the idea of an additional field, but only as the distinct and separate idea of particles and solid matter. Within the Unified Field concept, it is this notion of solidity and particles which changes, to become only specific characteristics of fields of force in space. Thus this separation between the ideas of energy and matter, between particles and waves, disappears. This Unified Field concept has been hidden in plain sight. What is required to utilize it and understand it, is the abandonment of our current concepts of solidity, particles and the material persistence of reality itself.

Numerous experiments imply there is a firm basis in reality for this concepts. There have been numerous experiments which suggest exactly such a connection between electrical forces and gravitational forces, as proposed in this Unified Field concept. Although some of these experiments have been discredited or even considered works of fiction, deeper investigation shows a lack of context within which to judge and a lack of any formal framework within which to understand many of these experiments. When such experimentation is reconsidered, with knowledge and direction provided as to the likely nature and relationship of the forces being investigated, it is extremely likely real substantial results would be forthcoming. Many of these experiment should be reconsidered in the light of such a Unified Field explanation. Many of these experiments would not even require significant expenditure or investment to reproduce.

The prime criteria for reproduction of these experiments, appears to simply be an open mind and willingness to take risk. The Unified Field concept, is not deeply hidden requiring expensive, specific and University level funding to demonstrate, these things are what would be required to prove it to these same institutions. The Unified Field concept, being as all pervasive, fundamental and simple as it has been determined by this investigation, can be demonstrated by simple apparatus and exists in natural processes.

The primary problem is not a technical, mathematical or theoretical problem, but a social, political and dogmatic problem. Understanding and proving the reality of these concepts, is not a technical problem, the problem is the social and scientific system we find ourselves in. Like any new ground breaking idea, some people might lose their jobs and some most certainly will be proven wrong. This concept is not new, it has been presented in various forms before, and yet it continues to be disregarded. The problem is people, not the science itself.

The idea of a third "Field of Force" in the Universe, which is related too but not itself electromagnetic, greatly simplifies so many problems in physics. It was demonstrated how the wave/particle duality of light and many other dualities we see in nature, are a consequence of the reality of a real dual nature to the fields of space. It was shown how this "Field of Force" can explain many features of Quantum Mechanics in a simpler way which not only works, but can be much more readily visualized and understood. The Unified Field concept, lays down the underlying foundation of measurement and observation itself.

The concept of a "Field of Force" simplifies and solves many cosmological problems, such as those requiring the current theories of Dark Matter and Dark Energy. There are new perspectives given on the very nature of time, space, motion and the very shape and structure which underlies all things we take as reality. The Unified Field concept gives us a new tool and perspective to revisit and reinterpret so many other scientific concepts.

Applying the Unified Field concept, leads to the realization of previously unconsidered and universally abundant sources of energy by which our civilization may be powered. Application of the Unified Field concept leads to radical and remarkably efficient new advanced propulsion system capable of expanding the human influence into the far reaches of space in ways only science fiction authors have dreamt. There are implications for this concept being so deep, pervasive, fundamental and simple nature, it could have been readily understood and applied even by past civilizations. It is so pervasive and inherent as to be available and the most probable path even to any civilization within the Universe.

Most importantly it has been demonstrated this concept of a "Field of Force" leads to a scientific and factual justification for many philosophical and even spiritual ideas. The Unified Field provides the deeper explanations for many fundamental biological problems, such as the formation of life, evolutionary process and even a formal and physical basis for the very concept of consciousness itself. This in turn leads even unto social, political, spiritual and religious implications for these concepts. The implications of a Unified Field, are as broad and all encompassing as would be expected from such a concept. The concept of a Unified Field touches directly upon all aspects of science and reality. The Unified Field concept even defines the very nature of touch itself.

Despite being such a mathematically complex and difficult concept to grasp, it demonstrates a common thread which connects and runs through our entire concept of reality itself. There have been many such grand theories proposed, but few seem to provide this interconnection and thread through all these various scientific understandings. This concept appears to be a simple solution which solves a great number of difficult and long standing problems in our understanding. Not just physics and material problems, but even deeper social and philosophical problems. The concepts define a structure and character to the Universe, which not only defines how energy and matter interact, but most importantly how we as living, conscious beings are connected to, defined by and directed by this same Universal structure.

From what has been determined, understanding the nature of the Universe, may be possible in a much simpler way than previously considered. The concepts of a Unified Field pervade reality and express in all forms, from atoms and objects on upward to planets, stars and galaxies. Not only these physical materials, but also biological and even social forms as well. The Unified Field concept is before us at all levels and interactions. It runs through all scales, from the galactic to the microcosm. It is even required to incorporate a combination of science and religion to fully grasp the deep underlying significance of such a revolutionary concept.

This "Field of Force" concept provides a unique and novel explanation for the character of the Universe. Such a physics concept arises no where else in the technical literature, other than through Albert Einstein's Unified Field theory. Many times throughout history such a concept has been suggested or implied and yet it has been dismissed or misunderstood. This Unified Field concept brings about such an elegant, all encompassing and far reaching solution to the problem there is no doubt it should be seriously reconsidered and reexamined. There are innumerable confirmations and evidences for its reality and there is such incredible, tremendous significance and potential for its application, if there is even the slightest inclination this concept is real, it deserves further investigation. The idea seems so simple once understood, we wonder why we never considered it before. The concept of a Unified "Field of Force" appears to be one of these revolutionary, paradigm changing ideas, which once known and understood makes us question how we ever thought about this differently. The potential impact on humanity is civilization changing.

References

The below links provide references, links and papers relevant to this work. A few references included in the sections are not included here. The references may be edited further in the future. The goal of these references is to provide many of the sources which led to the conclusions and concepts proposed in this work. We provide these as a courtesy for those looking for further information.

Unified Field Theory References

Unified Field Theory of Gravitation and Electricity by Albert Einstein. July 25, 1925

Reimannian Geometry with Maintaining the Notion of Distant Parrellelism.pdf by Albert Einstein. June 7, 1928

New Possibility for a Unified Field Theory of Gravitation and Electricity by Albert Einstein. June 14, 1928

Unified Field Based on Reimannian Metrics and Distant Parrallelism.pdf by Albert Einstein. 1930

Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete by A Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen. May 15 1935

In Einstein's book, "The meaning of Relativity"-The Third Addition he added an appendix in the fourth edition, which discussed the Unified Field Theory, called "Relativistic Theory of the Non-Symmetric Field". In the sixth edition of this book he chose to refer to this as his "Relativistic Theory of the Non-Symmetric field.

Relativistic theory of the non-symmetric field - Appendix II pg 136 added 1950 in Fourth Edition.
From The Meaning of Relativity. - Sixth Edition by Albert Einstein

From Nature, May 31, 1930 p813 A Simplified Presentation of Einstein's Unified Field Equations". By Prof. Tullio Levi-Civita. Translated by Dr. John Dougall. Pp 22. London, Glasgow and Bombay. Blackie and Son, Ltd. 1929

Geometry of Einstein's Unified Field Theory - Hlavaty, Vaclav 1953

The Elementary Basic Principles of the Unified Theory of Relativity - Hlavaty, Vaclav 1953

Albert Einstein's Unified Field Theory - Sunrisepage.com

Einstein's Fudge - The Astonomy Cafe
Discussion of the cosmological constant and the pursuit of a Theory of Everything.

Einstein's Other Theory of Everything
By Sabine Hossenfelder. August 30, 2024

Video-The Power of Tensor Mathematics
Understand Einstein's Theories Further by Watching this video explaining Tensor's in simple terms.

Einstein Field Equations Fully Written Out: What Do They Look Like Expanded? - Profound Physics

Einstein Unified Field Theory Completed - by James E. Beichler

Unified Field of Force References

"Observation of Static Electromagnetic Angular Momentum in Vacuo". Graham and Lahoz, Nature V. 285, May 15, 1980, p.129;

"Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight " H.E. Puthoff*, S.R. Little, and M. Ibison

A Poynting Vector/Field Conservation Equation and Gravity - The Murad-Brandenburg Equation

Another serious study on the ability of electromagnetic fields to manipulate inertia.
Propellantless Propulsion by Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation. Experiment and Study By Hector Hugo Brito

The same concept appears to be described in Pharis Williams paper, using thermodynamic theory to unite different aspects of physics.

The Dynamic Theory by Pharis E. Williams is a successful rewrite of physics from a purely thermodynamic perspective. The Dynamic Theory - A New View of Space-Time-Matter by Pharis E. Williams

Feynman Lectures 27 Field Energy and Field Momentum - Feynmanlectures.caltech.edu

Feynman Lectures 27 Field Energy and Field Momentum - Direct Download

Simple explanation of a well-known collision experiment - by F. Herrmann and P. Schmalzle. 1980

How does the ball-chain work? - by F. Herrmann and M. Seitz. 1982

Light is Heavy - M.B. van der Mark and G.W. ’t Hooft. Van A tot Q, NNV, November, 2000

Townsend Brown References

Patents

An electrostatic induction motor patented by Townsend Brown.
Electrostatic Motor US Patent 1974483 - T. Townsend Brown. Sept 25, 1934.

A high voltage device capable of measuring changes in the flow of dielectric through it
Electrokinetic Transducer US Patent 3018394 - T. Townsend Brown. July 3, 1957

A device which uses high voltage to generate low voltage power using a combustion chamber. This patent details what came to be know as "Flame Jet Generation" and was considered capable of generating enormous amounts of electrical energy from a rocket engine or jet engine. Estimates considered an engine like that employed by the Saturn 5 rocket, the F1, would produce sufficient power to energize the entire city of New York at the time for the duration the engine was fired.
Electrokinetic Generator US Patent 3022430 - T. Townsend Brown. July 3, 1957

This patent is essentially a Magnetohydrodynamic generators, meant to be energized by alternating current, thus producing alternating current output.
Electric Generator US Patent 3196296 - T. Townsend Brown. June 20, 1961

The original patent for the "Flame Jet Generation" technique, otherwise known as an Electrokinetic Generator.
Townsend Brown Electrokinetic Generator

Electrokinetic Apparatus - T. Townsend Brown. US Patent 2949550, July 3, 1957

Electrokinetic Apparatus - T. Townsend Brown. US Patent 3187206, May 9, 1958

Townsend Brown Patent 300311A A method of and an apparatus or machine for producing force or motion - Nov 15, 1928. pdf

Other Townsend Brown References

Thomas Townsend Brown - The Man Who Mastered Gravity - TTBrown.com by Paul Schatzkin

Thomas Townsend Brown Family Website - Linda Ann Brown. Daughter of T. Townsend Brown

Biefeld-Brown Effect and Space Curvature of Electromagnetic Field - by Algirdas Antano Maknickas. Journal of Modern Physics, 2013, 4, 105-110.

Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor - by Thomas B. Bahder and Chris Fazi. Army Research Laboratory. Sept 2002.

Another Step Towards Anti-Gravity - Gaston Burridge. American Mercury June, 1958. Courtesy of the Thomas Townsend Brown Family Website

A Simplified Explanation of the Biefeld-Brown Effect to the Solution of the Problem of Space Navigation - by Mason Rose, PhD. President of the University for Social Research. Apr 8, 1952

Project Winterhaven - A Proposal for Joint Services Research and Development Contract. The Townsend Brown Foundation.

Gravity and Antigravity - David Pratt's Article

Electrogravitics Systems - An examination of electrostatic motion, dynamic counterbary and barycentric control. AVIATION STUDIES INTERNATIONAL, LTD.

Modern Investigations of the Biefeld-Brown effect from Takaaki Musha

Connection Between Einstein's Unified Field Theory and the Biefeld-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha

Explanation of a Dynamical Biefeld-Brown effect from the Standpoint of Zero Point Fields - Takaaki Musha. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 61, pp.379-384

Theoretical Explanation of the Biefield-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha

The Possibility of Strong Coupling Between Electricity and Gravitation - Takaaki Musha
This paper details research conducted at the Honda Corporation Research Institute in 1996

Electrogravitic Propulsion System for a Satellite - Takaaki Musha

Theoretical Explanation of the Biefield-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha

Possibility of the Space Propulsion System Utilizing the ZPF field - Takaaki Musha. 6th Symposium on New Frontiers in Space Propulsion Sciences

Non-Newtonian Property of the Force Generated by the Biefeld-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha. Journal of Space Exploration, 2013

Weyl Electrovacuum Solutions and Gauge Invariance - Boyko V. Ivanov

Electret References

Battery - T. Townsend Brown. April 28, 1976.

Electric Clock - T. Townsend Brown. Aug 27, 1978. Courtesy of the Thomas Townsend Brown Family Website

The original reference on Electret construction.
On the Permanent Electret - by Mototaro Eguchi, Professor of Physics, Higher Naval College, Tokyo, Japan. From "Philosophical Magazine" Vol 49 (1925) pp178.

An Investigation of Electrets - by Arthur M. Shalloway. 1951

Electrets - A New Method for Achieving and Measuring - Ilie Romaniuc

How to Make an Electret the Device that Permanently Maintains an Electric Charge. - by C. L. Strong. Scientific America, November, 1960

How to Make Electrets, Devices that hold Electric Charge - by C. L. Strong. July 1968

Introduction to Electrets: Principles, Equations, Experimental Techniques - by Gerhard M. Sessler

A study which demonstrated electrets can hold their charge for 35 years.
Life Time of Thermal Electrets of Carnauba Wax, Esters, Fatty Acids and Alcohols - Toshiaki Takamatsu

Making Electrets - unknown author, discussing production of electrets with images and description.

Video of a modern reproduction of an electret.
I Mapped The Field Of An Antimagnet (electret) - Plasma Channel on Youtube

Another video on Making Electrets
Making Electrets - Alan Yates on Youtube

Electrostatic Conversion for Vibration Energy Harvesting - S. Boisseau, G. Despesse, B. Ahmed Seddik. Small-Scale Energy Harvesting, Intech, 2012

The Electrophorus. A somewhat related, old technique for experimenting with static electric charge.
Electrophorus Holds Static Charge - Thomas B. Jones

A related patent for power from an electret using radioactive material to dope the electret.
Nuclear Electret Battery - A. Thomas. Patent 2876368. April 6, 1953

Nikola Tesla References

History of the Tesla coil - Wikipedia

This Wikipedia article provides a good history of the Nikola Tesla's coil, but attempts to discredit Nikola Tesla's Wardenclyffe tower as not functional. Hypocritically, the article mentions Wardenclyffe was well grounded and Nikola Tesla's intention was to conduct power through the Earth, but then claims the system could not have worked because you cannot send significant power as radio waves through the air. Another effort to discredit Nikola Tesla's knowledge and genius.

The Transmission of Electrical Energy without Wires. Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904

PBS. Tesla: Master of Lightning - Octathorpe's Documentary Collection

PBS. Tesla: Master of Lightning - PBS companian site to their movie, Tesla: Master of Lightning.

The Nikola Tesla Museum - Belgrade, Serbia

Dr. MegaVolt's Website A performer utilizing Tesla coils

ClassicTesla.comExcellent Tesla Coil website with numerous links

Saskia's Toroidial Tesla Coil - Jared Dwarshuis

Wireless Power Transfer via Inductive Coupling - Marko Bakula on Youtube. Keep in mind this is near field inductive coupling for radio frequency power transfer. This is what people think Nikola Tesla intended to do with Wardenclyffe, but it is not.

The Unified Field and Space Propulsion References

Interstellar Transport - NOVA .org

The Planetary Society - Planetary.org

Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Projects - DavidDarling.info

Laesie Works - by Giesbert Nijhuis

Star TrekDiscover Magazine. Aug, 2003.

The Death of Rocket Science

Advanced Propulsion for the 21st Century - A great summary of space propulsion technology.

Critical Problems for Interstellar Propulsion Systems

Electric Propulsion - ESA.int

Atomic Rockets - Winchell Chung

Whatever Happened to Photon Rockets - Published by Armagh Observatory and Planetarium on December 5, 2013

Prospective of photon propulsion for interstellar flight - Young K. Bae

There Will Be No Photon Rocket - V. Smilga

Photon engines! The Best way to visit other stars? - Cosmos:elementary on YouTube

From NASA

NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program - NTRS - NASA Technical Reports Server

Interstellar Propulsion Research: Realistic Possibilities and Idealistic Dreams
Prospects for a Breakthrough in Field Dependent Propulsion. A.C. Holt. NASA Johnson Space Center
Sponsored By: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
The Challenge To Create the Space Drive - Marc G. Millis
Warp Drive May Be More Feasible Than Thought
Force Fields for Space Based Construction - Komerath
Integrated Structural Electrodynamic Propulsion - Voronka
Lorentz Actuated Orbits - Peck

Field Resonance Propulsion Concept - by Alan. C. Holt. National Aeronautics & Space Administration. Washington, DC. August, 1979.

Prospects for a Breakthrough in Field Dependent Propulsion by A.C. HOLT, NASA Johnson Space Center

From the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

Toroidial Plasma Thruster for Interplanetary and Interstellar Space Flights

Aerospace Industry

Douglas Aircraft Paper from 1968 Titled Advanced Vehicle Concepts Research
Douglas Aircraft Paper from 1968 Titled Gravity Amplification Propulsion System
Propulsion Options for Interstellar Missions - Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Mach's Principle of Mass Fluctuations and Rapid Spacetime Transport
Antigravity for Aerospace Applications - author unknown. A paper from a series of advanced technology reports produced in 2009 under the defence Intelligence Agency, Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications (AAWSA) Program
Antigravity - Robert L. Forward. Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California. 1962

Stanton Friedman

The Stanton Friedman Collection - The BlackVault.com

UFO Propulsion Systems - Stanton T. Friedman

Canadian has devoted life to proving existence of alien life - CBC.ca

Takaaki Musha

Brain and the Quantum Hypercomputing System - Takaaki Musha. (Physics Research and Technology)

Gravitoelectromagnetic Theories and their Applications to Advanced Science and Technology - Takaaki Musha, Mario J. Pinheiro, T. Valone. (Physics Research and Technology)

Physics of Field Propulsion - Takaaki Musha, Mario J. Pinheiro. (Physics Research and Technology)

Physics of the Zero Point Field and Its Applications to Advanced Technology - Takaaki Musha (Physics Research and Technology)

Superluminal Particles and Hypercomputation - Takaaki Musha (Physics Research and Technology)

Another Formula For Electromagnetic Energy Flow in Static Fields - Takaaki Musha. Physics Essays v7. n3. 1994
Another Possibility of Sonoluminescence Due to the Cherenkov Radiation from the ZPF Field in a Water Bubble - Takaaki Musha. Natural Science Vol.3, No.3, 249-254 (2011)
Connection Between Einstein's Unified Field Theory and the Biefeld-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha
Cosmic Background Radiation Due to the Cherenkov Radiation from the Zero-Point Field of Vacuum - Takaaki Musha. Journal of Space Exploration
Electrogravitic Originated Mass of the Sun - Takaaki Musha. Russian Journal of Astrophysical Research. Series A, 2019
Electrogravitic Propulsion System for a Satellite - Takaaki Musha. International Journal of Scientific Advances. v2. i2. 2021
Explanation of a Dynamical Biefeld-Brown effect from the Standpoint of Zero Point Fields - Takaaki Musha. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 61, pp.379-384
Field Propulsion Systems for Space Travel - Yoshinari Minami, Takaaki Musha. Advanced Science-Technology Research Organization.
Strong Coupling Between Electricity and Gravitation and its Application to Human Space Flight - Takaaki Musha
General Relativistic Gravity Machine using Electromagnetic Torsion Field - Takaaki Musha, Mario J. Pinheiro. International Journal of Sciences. Vol 7, Mar 2018.
Non-Newtonian Property of the Force Generated by the Biefeld-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha. Journal of Space Exploration, 2013
On the Possibility of ZPF Space Propulsion - Takaaki Musha. Journal of Space Exploration, 2013
Possibility of the Space Propulsion System Utilizing the ZPF field - Takaaki Musha. 6th Symposium on New Frontiers in Space Propulsion Sciences
Possibility to Construct a gravitational Wave Detector by Utilizing the Electrogravitic Properties of Dielectric - Takaaki Musha
Quantum vacuum energy, gravity manipulation and the force generated by the interaction between high-potential electric fields and zero-point-field - Luigi Maxmilian Caligiuri, Takaaki Musha. International Journal of Astrophysics and Space Science. 2014
The Possibility of FTL Space Travel by using the Quantum Tunneling Effect through the Light Barrier - Takaaki Musha. Journal of Space Exploration, 2017.
Theoretical Explanation of the Biefield-Brown Effect - Takaaki Musha
The Possibility of Strong Coupling Between Electricity and Gravitation - Takaaki Musha
This paper details research conducted at the Honda Corporation Research Institute in 1996
Weyl Electrovacuum Solutions and Gauge Invariance - Boyko V. Ivanov

NPO - ASTRO: Advanced Science-Technology Research Organization
A non-profit organization hoping to assist in the development of future creation of new scientific theories and technologies, including space propulsion systems, which are not an extension of current science and technologies.

Mainstream Publications

Electromagnetotoroid structures as a propulsion mechanism - Mario J. Pinheiro
From Anti-Gravity To Zero-Point Energy: A Technical Review of Advanced Propulsion Concepts
This paper is an introduction to the field of advanced and non-conventional propulsion systems which summarizes and correlates the research in an attempt to show that we are closer to truly advanced propulsion than most scientists believe.
The Death of Rocket Science
The Challenge to Create the Space drive
New Frontiers in space Propulsion Sciences
The Warp Drive: Hyper-fast Travel Within General Relativity By Miguel Alcubierre
Interstellar Travel by Means of Wormhole Induction Propulsion By Eric W. Davis
The Theory of Buckhard Heim and its Presentation of Hyperspace Travel (html)
Source for Buckhard Heim's Abstract and Paper
The Dynamic Theory - A New View of Space-Time-Matter By Pharis E. Williams
New Horizons In Electric, Magnetic & Gravitational Field Theory By William J. Cooper.
William J. Cooper's Motional Electric Theory
A_Possible Theoretical Basis For Propulsive Force Generation By Both Conventional and Unconventional Means
Prospective of Photon Propulsion for Interstellar Flight - Young K. Bae

Vacuum, Zero-Point, Spacetime Engineering

Advanced Space Propulsion Based On Vacuum ( Spacetime Metric ) Engineering
"A theme that has come to the fore in advanced planning for long-range space exploration is the concept that empty space itself (the quantum vacuum, or spacetime metric) might be engineered so as to provide energy/thrust for future space vehicles."
On the Possibility of a Propulsion Drive Creation Through a Local Manipulation of Spacetime Geometry
Conversion of the Vacuum-energy of Electromagnetic Zero-point Oscillations into Classical Mechanical Energy
Vacuume-Generated Reaction Force.
Cosmic Background Radiation Due to the Cherenkov Radiation from the Zero-Point Field of Vacuum
The Secrets of Antigravity - by Bruce A. Smith
Why Doesn't Antimatter Anti-gravitate - Sabine Hossenfelder on Forbes.com

Electromagnetic, Lorentz, Lenz, and Magnetohydrodynamic Methods and Theories

Inertia as a Zero-Point-Field Lorentz Force
A Poynting Vector/Field Conservation Equation and Gravity- The Murad-Brandenburg Equation
"This derived Poynting equation uses two different formalisms, and surprisingly a Poynting field may also offer a new path for investigating physics and electrical engineering as well as create consequences for a new methodology to expand advanced propulsion systems."
Theoretical Analysis of Shock Wave Annihilation with MHD Force Field
The Silence Barrier - A comic book explaining magnetohydrodynamics and electromagnetic force field propulsion
Nonlinear Electromagnetic Propulsion
Magnetoaerodynamic Propulsion for Exploration of Atmosphere Bearing Planetary Bodies
Propulsion Through Electromagnetic Self-sustained Acceleration
Inertia Reduction -and Possibly Impulsion -By Conditioning Electromagnetic Fields
An Electromagnetic Basis For Inertia and Gravitation
Current Research in Gravito-Electromagnetic Spacecraft Propulsion.
Einstein-Cartan-Evans Theory - Clean Renewable Energy an Expansion of the Einstein Theory
A Theoretical Field Propulsion Design
Propellantless Propulsion by Electromagnetic Inertia Manipulation
Experiment and Study By Hector Hugo Brito
Theory of the Sustentation of Matter - Mario R. Carvajal
Gravitational field Propulsion pdf
Electric Propulsion Study Prepared for Air Force Space Technology Center
NEXUS Magazine- Antigravity - Holy Grail of the 21st Century - Archived NEXUS Magazine website at cruinthe.tripod.com/nexus/index.html

Experimentation

A Novel Technology of Electric Propulsion
"We proposed a new technology that generates propulsion force via electromagnetic interaction between a toroidial solenoid and a parallel plate capacitor."
Link to an easily replicated experiment demonstrating propulsive force from a toroidial coil and solid metal core.
( Not sure about the authors explanation though )
Bobbin Electromagnetic Field Propulsion Vehicle Patent
Utilization of Lenz forces in a toroidial type field propulsion device
David Pratt's Excellent Article on Ancient Techniques of Levitation
Gravity, Gizmos, and a Grand Theory of Interstellar Travel - by Daniel Oberhaus. Discussion of Jim Woodward's efforts at propellent less propulsion.

(1 of 5)Rare Poekletnov Interview
A great 5 part interview of Finnish scientist Eugene Podkletnov and his ideas about gravity manipulation.

Established Physics References

"I think most people can learn alot more then they think they can. They sell themselves short without really trying." - Elon Musk

What is physics? We see in physics the science of observation and measurement, in order to define physical laws or rules in order to predict behaviour and future outcomes using those laws and rules. Physics is a model of reality, we use to better understand reality. We should see that because of physics critical dependence on observation and measurement, observation and measurement must be rigorously defined. Further, the goal of physics must be itself rigorously defined in the context of our discussion.

Is physics goal an understanding of the Universe and our place in it, or just an understanding of the physical processes at work in the Universe. Can these two ideas even be separated like this. We must ask does philosophy play a role in physics, does biology, consciousness or even spirituality? For our own understand is a true theory of everything, cannot avoid such concepts as they are inherently part of everything, are they not? How can we say any concept within the Universe, including life and mind, can be outside the physical laws and rule which govern the Universe?

Of course this is a path established physics fears to tread and yet research in this direction will likely provide the real answers to the questions physics seeks and it will ultimately fail in its efforts until such direction is pursued.

Here we attempt to present some concepts within established physics so we have a solid foundation and the right terminology by which to discuss more complex ideas. We are not going to explain all of physics here, but present important ideas and concepts relevant to the discussion and point out some of the areas where physics is still incomplete or working on solutions.

Logic and Problem Solving

If we chose to solve a great and unsolvable problem. The first trick is to make the unsolvable, solvable. This is done through the first principle. Take the problem and break it down into its simplest parts, so that it cannot be broken down further. Once you have the simple parts, use those parts to solve the problem at hand. Once you have the solution for the simplest parts, it is most certain the rest of the complicated parts will be solved as well. If they are not, then they are likely wrong anyway and don't even worry about them.

For the simplest solution is the best solution. The simplest solution which solves the greatest number of problems, is always the best solution. A complex solution which only solves one specific problem is useful, but not as much so as a simpler solution which solves more problems.

The current state of physics, is an overly complicated behemoth of a problem, which in its current state is utterly unsolvable. Further complicating the problem, by adding more and more complexity is not the way out of such a dilemma. The only way to solve this problem, is through the first principle and come at the problem from a new direction.

Instead of trying to put together all the complicated and innumerable pieces to try to find some common element or connection, do the complete reverse. Make an assumption of simplicity, determine what that simply solution would look like, and then try to relate that solution to ever more and more complex features. If that solution shows the ability to cover the greatest number of problems, than it is good. If it causes more problems than it solves, than it can be thrown out.

There is another method to solving problems we can apply. Say we have lost a needle in a haystack. We could take a random approach, just start looking for the needle, look here, look there, just keep looking in new places until we find the needle by pure chance. We could employ various strategies of searching, circular patterns, one side to the other, top to bottom and so on. We could apply a brute force methodology, and move the entire haystack straw by straw from one place to another, until the needle is found or is all that remains. There are other strategies we could employ as well.

One might be to understand the situation better using some additional knowledge, we know a needle is magnetic and we know straw is not, so we could drag a magnet about through the straw until it picks up the needle. Similarly, we could know that straw burns, but a needle does not and set the whole straw pile alight, and once it has burned away we would find our needle. It is these strategies based on broader knowledge, which are the most fruitful in our mind.

We find though, the greatest means to solve problems is through intuition. Faced with this needle in the haystack problem, using intuition one would consider where the person holding the needle was, approximately where the needle could have fallen, perhaps checking how far the needle may have fallen downward, and then fully trusting their intuition they would essentially just reach into the haystack and pick out the needle.

Trusting our intuition is the most logical approach to problem solving.

"Prof. Klein distinguishes three main classes of mathematicians — the intuitionists, the formalists or algorithmists, and the logicians. Now it is intuition that is most useful in physical mathematics, for that means taking a broad view of a question, apart from the narrowness of special mathematics." - Oliver Heaviside. Electromagnetic Theory p 461

The Myth of the Magical Scientific Method by Dr. Terry Halwes. From and archive of the now offline site dharma-haven.org

The Scientific Method by Robert V. Blystone and Kevin Blodgett

The State of Physics

What is physics?

The word physics means simply "the study of nature". "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." - Maxwell 1878. Today Wikipedia defines physics as "the scientific study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behaviour through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force." and that "Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines."- Wikipedia.

Here we are going to take the broader, older stance on what Physics is and what Physics should do. Physics is utilizing observation and measurement of the world around us to better understand and predict the rules or laws which define the function of the Universe. Physics is a way for us to understand how the Universe itself works and thus what role we play within it.

Some would argue subjects such as consciousness, mind, philosophy, even spirituality and religion have no purpose in physics, but if physics purports to discover a theory of everything, and these things exist within the Universe, then Physics absolutely plays a role in these subjects. It is foolish for any physicist to claim knowledge of the workings of the Universe, without having any understanding of how those workings effect the physicist himself, how he even came to be capable of discovering such knowledge, or even what the very concepts of knowledge, laws and rules even are.

Thus we need physics as the solid foundation upon which to base our understanding of ourselves and the Universe within which we live. When we know ourselves, by extension, we know physics as a whole. In fact this connection between the physicist and the Universe is the most productive and illuminating path to discover the real underlying processes in Physics.

Even today in modern quantum mechanics, physicists are discovering the very concepts of Observation and Measurement must be rigorously defined. We too here state the fundamental goal of physics must also be thusly rigorously defined. If we do not start with a solid foundation, then we can never hope to reach any solid result.

Current Established Physics has laid out some fundamental understandings of what exists in the Universe.

• Charge, Electric Field
• Magnetic Field
• Motion / Velocity / Acceleration / Inertia
• Mass
• Gravity
• Time
• Space
• Mind / Consciousness / Life ( this is critically important and must be included! )

We find further considerations and principles in modern physics, such as:

• Causality
• Covariance
• Action
• Physical field
• Symmetry
• Physical interaction
• Statistical ensemble
• Quantum
• Wave
• Particle

We could argue and debate that some of these could be combined with others, there may be certain aspects missing, but this is a good enough summary. We can say from these, Physics would like to know how all these various concepts are related, and if this can be simplified even further. Ultimately, physics could come down to everything is mind or consciousness and all the other components come from this, but we are most certainly not at that point yet.

Quantum Mechanics theory has determined a simpler broader summary of the interactions of energy and matter, leading to the following summary:

• Matter is a Quantum Field
• Interactions are Quantum Fields
• Gravity is a Field

Unfortunately, this third component, the field of gravity has thus far found no understandable connection with the ideas of quantum fields, thus although physicists would like to have everything summarized as quantum fields or interactions between quantum fields, the inability to explain how gravity fits into quantum mechanics is a very big, "elephant in the room", as it is said.

Current Problems in Physics

Probably the biggest problem we see in physics today, is it appears to have lost its contact with its true purpose as defined above. Physicists have developed such complex mathematical methods for describing the formation of particles, interactions of mass and energy, and gone to levels so far removed from reality, they do not even realize how lost they are.

Yes, these theories predict what they find in experiments, in that sense they are irrefutable, but they have lost any relevance to a goal of understanding how the Universe works and what connection and role we have to it. If a physicist can tell us how the discovery of quarks, helps one in their daily life or helps humanity progress, improves humanity or provides some important service to humanity, we will gladly alter our opinion. If people are disillusioned with physics and seeking alternative versions, it is because physics is giving them nothing of value.

Consider this example: Early in physics we wondered of what matter was composed, and with research determined their were atoms. With this discovery numerous advances in chemistry and other fields of science occurred. We then went further and determined the atoms, were themselves composed of sub-atomic particles, the electrons, protons and neutrons, and from this we further advanced our understanding. With quantum mechanics we have developed numerous technologies, semiconductors, computers, quantum computers, new materials processing. We are in no way saying here there is not something of value which can come from such efforts, as clearly our technology advances from these discoveries. What is missing, is the broader goal, the discovery of a broader understanding.

We now know the sub-atomic particles are composed of even smaller particles, quarks. Maybe, if they build even more expensive and powerful super, super duper, colliders they will discover quarks are composed of even smaller particles of matter. Current physics seems to be taking this path, that if they keep discovering more and more, if they just dig a little deeper, if they just get more data, then they will discover the final clue, dig up the treasure and the data will finally all come together into a grand solution. As if the grand theory of everything is just around the corner, if we just keep adding complexity to our knowledge?

The thing is, the grand solution or theory of everything, if it exists, applies at all levels. Without even knowledge of atoms, it could very well be possible to discover a theory of everything. This is not saying such a discover would be easier, because all these other complicated things would not need to be included. What we are saying is a complete theory of everything by its nature includes atoms, sub-atomic particles, and even particle yet undiscovered. The grand theory of everything covers everything both found and unfound within its very nature and even those things yet undiscovered should already fit.

The true, one theory of everything, is available to be discovered, at any point throughout the entire accumulation of information. We could have figured it out many decades ago, Albert Einstein could have solved it, it could have been solved after the very first collider was built or even before. It is entirely plausible even some ancient civilization had already figured it all out. This is what we seem to have forgotten in physics. The solution is always at hand and does not depend on the addition of further and further information for it to be solved.

Adding information, calculations and theory to the problem, does not make it more likely the problem will be solved, it actually does the opposite. Adding more and more information increases the complexity of the required solution. We may have a solution, but now need to explain how this solution applies to so many more things. Now, because science does not know the correct path, they have branched out onto numerous paths, which have degrees of correctness in the direction they go, but can no longer be tied back together with all the other branches and paths which have been pursued. Only one path is correct and they struggle down so many paths, hoping to find the one which leads through, but they have lost track of them all. The one which does lead through, may be one we already started to walk, but then changed paths and now have forgotten about our previous choices.

Here we consider the possibility for a simple solution. We propose the existence of a better understanding of gravity and its relationship to all things. We propose the existence of one field, from which all other fields and forces come, could exist. Such a solution will come not from, deeper and ever more complex experimentation, but exists right now, in a simple, hands on, desktop experiment which could be performed by anyone.

Without our current complex knowledge of mathematics and physics, someone like Faraday or the true experimentalists of old, could have found a unique combination of parts and pieces which proved, practically, something new. The discovery of such a thing, could go back even to the foundation of all the branches of physics, and from this it is possible to determine where each branch, broke off. The discovery of such a thing, does not discount the validity of any of these branches, nor does it discount the successes achieved by each branch in its own way, it simply consolidates all into a more coherent whole.

Such a practical discovery could completely upend modern physics, forcing it to go back to its roots, force many to reconsider past positions and some people might even lose their jobs.

Unexplained Phenomenon and Principles in Physics

Modern physics appears like the emperor in his new clothes. Modern Physics is a grand, extravagant production claiming to know all and be the ultimate source of knowledge. However, any real scientist, a true physicist will be the first to admit, modern physics is incomplete. It is correct as far as it goes, but beyond that many deep, fundamental questions and problems remain unsolved. There are many concepts in physics which are yet to be explained. Any real theory of everything, should be capable of providing insight into these ideas.

• the fine structure constant
• the electron/proton mass ration
• the speed of light
• why accelerated charges emit radiation
• why there is beta decay and even radioactivity from matter
• why there is randomness and probabilities
• the quantum of action and quantum spin
• G the gravitational constant
• the wave/particle duality
• light/matter
• what is the space/time framework
• why do we need the weak/strong forces
• why is their red shift, Doppler effect
• why is the inverse square law so pervasive, for gravity and charge
• why is energy quantized

Some would argue, knowing the "why" of these things is irrelevant to understanding, that these things just exist and that is enough. We do not follow this argument, as there must be some fundamental structure which has led to the current situation.

You cannot talk about the laws of physics, or develop a theory of everything, in which laws and rules, just appear of their own accord from some previously unknown or void condition, that is creationism not physics. There should be some clear progression of development, or clear set of initial conditions which leads to the complexity and formation of additional relationships. Only by knowing this progression of principles, the progression of the laws and rules themselves, is any theory of everything become apparent.

Another concept which needs further clarification are the unsolved problems in mathematics revolving around infinite and the concept of zero. There exists a concept called, countable infinity, which seems contradictory to nature.

We have become aware of the Unsolved Strong CP problem with the Strong Force in the Standard Model. Besides the Standard Model hiding a huge elephant in its room in the complete omission of gravity or including some magical thing called the gravition, and yet purporting to be the ultimate solution to particle formation and prediction. In the standard model, the charge inversion and parity( 3 dimensional mirroring ) of the strong force is not restricted, but no violations ever occurs in reality and this cannot be explained. This is the Unsolved Strong CP problem. They have even gone so far to predict new particles to explain this discrepancy. If theta is fixed at 0, then there is only symmetry, but there is no reason why this should be so, all angles should be allowed. Why the system is limited to symmetry remains unexplained.

Another huge problem in Physics is the inability to reconcile quantum mechanics with general relativity. No theory yet explains adequately the relationship between gravity and the other forces of nature. This is the problem we are most interested in, as to discover the means to control gravity, is civilization changing.

You can watch some excellent videos the unsolved problems in physics presented by Unsolved Mysteries: A summary of the most fundamental questions - Unzicker's Real Physics

Vibrations, Harmonics and Standing Waves

Much can be said about these three concepts but there are much greater explanations on the internet than are provided here. Suffice it to say that vibration, harmonics and standing waves play a crucial role in the Universe around us.

Vibrations occur in all things from the impossibly small frequencies in atoms and light to the unimaginable huge oscillations of stars and even entire galaxies. The harmonics of the world and space around us has been defined as the " Music of the Spheres " in which harmonies of nature are considered to be fundamental to the formation of all things. Standing waves concern waves which are contained and travel back and forth upon themselves so as to give the appearance as to not be moving anywhere. Resonance is defined in physics as the amplification of a natural vibration ( be it mechanical, magnetic or electrical ) by input of energy at the same vibration rate as the natural vibration.

The following brief physics tutorial covers resonance in greater detail:

The Physics Classroom- Resonance and Standing Waves Part 1

The Physics Classroom- Resonance and Standing Waves Part 2

Understanding the physics of waves from The University of Glasgow

We will briefly touch on the concept of a Soliton Wave. A Soliton wave appears to be a distortion due to a unidirectional, one way, change in the medium, which then propagates out as a change in the medium, but has different characteristics from a normal wave. A normal wave is an oscillation of energy, with a positive and negative component. A soliton only has one of these components, it is wholly positive or wholly negative and does not oscillate between the two.

Although these articles deal with sound and music the principles of resonance apply to mechanical vibration, electrical vibration and magnetic vibration.

Chinese Spouting Bowl in Slow Motion - The Slow Mo Guys

Spherical Harmonics (U2-05-05 ) - QuantumVisions
How waves work on the surface of a sphere.

In a medium in which waves are propagating, there is a pressure in the direction normal to the waves and numerically equal to the energy in unit volume.

Resonance and Feedback

Feedback and resonance are how a small input force and small overall input energy can, over time, give rise to huge, exponential increases in total energy of a system. When these two mechanisms are combined together, feedback and resonance, they have the potential to completely destroy the system in which they are operating. Feedback and resonance are an important physics concept to understand.

Resonance

Resonance is the maximum amount of energy transfer between vibrating ( or rotating systems ) when the input energy matches the natural frequency of the system receiving the energy. A good example of this is when you "pump" a swing with the motion of your feet and body. When you time your motion correctly, you can get the swing to swing higher and higher until you can go no further.

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse Caught on Camera (1940) - You Asked For It on YouTube.
No discussion of the power of resonance is complete without mention of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse. Watch as wind, causes a tremendous resonance in the bridge causing it to fail after only 6 months.

An excellent example of resonance being put to work is in radio tuning. A radio is tuned by adjusting its components to that the electrical current in the radio circuit, resonates with the signal you wish to receive. Thus that signal is the one which causes the most power in the circuit, due to resonance, and is how a certain signal can be picked out of all the others. One signal frequency will cause the most resonance in the circuit, if that is the frequency the radio circuit is tuned too.

Tuning a Radio Receiver - Molecular Expressions. Electricty and Magnetism Introduction.

An excellent example of resonance at work in an electromagnetic circuit is provided by this java applet called "Tuning a Radio Receiver" at the Molecular Expressions website. The antenna receives a whole spectrum of frequencies, as shown in red. By adjusting the capacitance of the circuit, you adjust the resonant frequency of the radio circuit. Since the radio circuit only resonates at the one specific frequency to which it is tuned, it only extracts the matching resonant wave from the antenna, as shown on the green display.

Feedback

Feedback happens when a portion of the output of a system is fed back into the input of the system, causing a loop, increasing the systems total power.

A simple example of feedback in nature would be a snowball thrown down a large hill covered with wet snow. Under such conditions the rolling snowball would accumulate more snow and more snow, getting bigger and bigger, until we had a giant snowball capable of crashing through a whole building. This is the aptly named, "Snowball Effect". Another good example of feedback and resonance in a natural system is a tornado, in which different temperatures of air cause at first a small breeze, which eventually builds into a powerful tornado capable of immense destruction.

Another common example of feedback involves the squealing of an amplifier when the microphone is brought to close to the speaker. The squeal is the amplifier going into "feedback oscillations" as output from the speaker is fed back into the microphone, so the sound heard by the microphone is amplified and sent out the speaker, but the microphone hears what is coming out the speaker, so it takes that sound and sends it back into the amplified to come out the speaker even louder. It does this repeated amplification to a point, but the electronics cannot handle the increased power and instead the energy begins to just oscillate back and forth, and the system starts making this loud squealing noise.

This is considered a nuisance in audio amplification and the circuitry is prevented from overloading due to the design of the electronics and instead of the sound just getting louder and louder the system goes into oscillations causing a terrible screeching noise. In nature however, the principles of feedback and resonance is a source of tremendous power and growth. Nikola Tesla once remarked how it was a very good thing nature had natural checks and limits in place to prevent feedback and resonance from causing untold destruction and energy gain.

See the following picture of optical feedback between a computer display and a camera which is pointed back at the computer display. This perfectly demonstrates how a simple feedback arrangement can cause an infinite loop of images, as the camera sees the computer display, but the display is showing what the camera sees, but the camera sees the display, etc etc. This situation puts a huge load on the graphics processing power of the computer and when this is done you will experience a noticeable drop in performance as the graphics have to process more and more information in an endless loop.

Optical Feedback of a Computer Camera and Display

We see a similar example of such a feedback loop, in the infinite mirror light boxes people create. There is a Two way mirror on one side of a box and a normal mirror on the other, with some lights inside. So there is a reflection of one mirror upon the other, back and forth in an infinite loop so that it appears like the inside of the box goes on infinitely. We may think such things are only for entertainment purposes, but this concept and the fact we can reproduce it at the macroscopic scale, suggests it is a much deeper and more universal concept. Certain types of energy or interactions in the Universe, may behave in a very similar way, so that we can have an infinite recursion within a finite space. This is ultimately related also to the phenomenon of holograms and a holographic nature to the Universe, in which each tiny part, contains the whole.

Jet engines and Rocket engines, some of our most powerful and advanced engines, rely on feedback for their immense power. Thus we use feedback as the means to travel to space right now!

In the video below, they are using an old "turbo" from a car. A turbo has two turbines, attached to the same shaft. One side is used to compress air, which is then fed into a combustion chamber and combined with fuel and ignited. This hot expanding gas is then fed into the other side of the turbine, causing it to spin. Since the two sides are directly connected together, the hot side spins the intake side even faster, causing the input air to be compressed even more, which improves the power of the combustion, spinning the turbo faster and faster until it is rotating at tens of thousands of rpm, like a jet engine.

A rocket engine works similarly in that it uses very high power and high speed turbos to pump fuel and oxidizer into the combustion chamber of the rocket, producing immense thrust.

Homemade Jet EngineAn example of the power of feedback.

Vortex Motion

The spiral vortex appears everywhere in nature and seems to exist at all levels of the Universe. Although the causes of vortex structure appearing can be varied, its pervasive existence at all scales seems to strongly suggest there is a more fundamental explanation. In the images of the water spouts below, we see a very unusual and not well documented effect which may lead us closer to understanding the significance of vortices in nature.

Possible Vortex Structure of Particles

Giordano Bruno Crater Whorl

Charge flows away from the Sun in a Spiral pattern

The vortex fields around our Sun

Vortex Motion in a Galaxy

Possible spiral vortex motion of the Universe itself

In the following images, we see a very unusual and unexplained effect. In the water surrounding the water spout, we see vortex patterns on the surface of the water. One would naturally assume these patterns are due to the forces of the wind flowing into the water spout vortex, but this is not the case. As the scientists demonstrated, by dropping a smoke flare onto the surface of the water, within this vortex pattern. As you can see in the image the direction of the smoke from the smoke flare, does not follow the direction of the vortex. This demonstrates these vortex patterns are nor formed by wind. This is puzzling, as we must wonder than what is causing this vortex pattern in the water, if not the wind? This is a very interesting demonstration.

The Vortex Patterns Surrounding a Water Spout are not formed by wind.

The Dual Vortex structure in a WaterSpout

We see in most tornados and vortex, a dual flow of energy. There is material rising, but material falling as well. The internal vortex may turn in the complete opposite direction to the external vortex. The energy appears to be exchanged in a delicate balance of forces.

Could we speculate these patterns formed, not by wind, nor by charge, are perhaps evidence of some other force, some other field of force? Interestingly, Einstein himself proposed a possible solution to the rotation curve problem of galaxies in his paper, The Cause of the Formation of Meanders in the Courses of Rivers and of the So-Called Baer's Law.

The solution is explained by the existence of a dual helical flow in all galaxies, which is greatest through the plane of equatorial motion and least in the surrounding space. Of what this dual helical flow is comprised is unknown, but it provides an additional force sufficient to maintain and attract the masses of the galaxy to the center, in addition to the gravitational forces.

Such a flow may even propose a solution to the dark energy conundrum, as it provides an radial, axial force outward from the center out both axis of rotation, and seems to be the force responsible for huge jets from cosmological systems. Thus the Universe, may be experiencing a slightly attractive force along some vast universal plane, but everywhere else and especially along its axis there would be a significant force of expansion.

Albert Einstein and Meandering Rivers - SearchandDiscovery.com

Dolphins making Toroidial Air Vorticies

These videos should be called 'Dolphin Scientists' as this behaviour is remarkable and shows the dolphins real intelligence. Of specific interest and pointed out in the video is that these toroidial vortices of air will travel downward, whereas a normal air bubble will immediately and quickly just rise straight up to the surface. When moving in such a vortex shape, the air behaves in ways it does not normally do underwater. For a physicist these bubbles have multiple degrees of motion, and many forces involved, which make this simple thing, exceedingly difficult to model and understand.

It would be very difficult for modern physics to explain why, despite the vortex motion, such a toroidial vortex no longer experiences a very powerful upward force due to the buoyancy of the air. When the vortex is destroyed, the air behaves completely as we would expect, and the bubbles quickly rise to the surface. However, while the air is in this toroidial vortex motion, the air no longer appears to experience a powerful buoyant force. How puzzling.

Is is also remarkable how the dolphins can break the toroid into a smaller toroid without completely destroying the vortex, as well as manipulate and move it around as if it is some real form, not just a bubble of air.

This is a link to an article about lightning strikes and trees. We see when lightning strikes a tree, it tends to follow the spiral pattern inherent in the growth of the tree we do not often see from outside. Thus the vortex and spiral nature is built into the structure of trees which improves its strength.
Spiral lightning scars - yosemitenews.info

Celestial Mechanics

We need to discuss some ideas of Celestial Mechanics and Orbital mechanics

An orbit traced onto the surface of a sphere is a sinusoidal track. A plane cut through a sphere is a Sinusoid. Thus from a certain perspective it is a vibration, not a circular form, it is a forward back or oscillating motion.

Orbital mechanics works different than what we think. If you launch a rocket straight up, no matter how high it goes, once its engines stop, it would fall straight back down again. In order for a rocket to orbit the Earth, it needs to not only go up, but it needs to be given a tremendous amount of horizontal speed relative to the Earth's surface. It is even possible to orbit at the surface with a high enough velocity. It is like firing a projectile, the faster it goes, the further it will travel. If you fire a projectile fast and high enough, it will actually just go completely around the Earth and be in what we call an orbit.

If you want to rendezvous two spacecraft in orbit, or dock them together. Let us consider they are fairly close to each other and can even see each other. If you were to just fire your engines in the direction of the other spacecraft, you would find it impossible to meet it. This is because when you increase or decrease your orbital speed, you end up raising or lower your orbit. Speeding up raises the orbit, which actually takes longer to complete. Slowing down lowers the orbit, but takes less time to complete. Energy must be given to a spacecraft, for it to rise up and energy must be removed for it to go lower. If all the energy is removed, the spacecraft would fall straight down to the surface. If too much energy is given, a spacecraft will leave the gravity of the Earth entirely. Thus the astronauts had difficulty understanding what they needed to do, when they first attempted to rendezvous with another craft in orbit.

In order to understand orbital mechanics, we need to understand the relationships between the size of an orbit and its height. A larger orbit takes longer and your speed is slower, but you have more potential energy and less kinetic energy. A lower orbit takes less time to complete and is faster but you have less potential energy and more kinetic energy.

You would think you would just point your spacecraft at the other spacecraft and fire your engines, but what this does is increase your kinetic energy for your current orbit, which actually raises your orbit slowing you down, thus you will get further away from your target. If you you turn backwards from your target, and fire your thrusters, you will lost kinetic energy for your current orbit, this will lower your orbit, speeding you up and you will close distance on your target. Except, now you have changed your orbit so you will drift away from your target vertically, even as you close distance horizontally. Thus you have to time everything just right, so your orbit and orbital speed and the orbit and orbital speed of your target, coincide at a certain time the you can match kinetic energy with your target and will be able to rendezvous. Thus to rendezvous in orbit, spacecraft may even fire their engines on the complete opposite side of the planet from where they intend to rendezvous.

The Only Video Needed to Understand Orbital Mechanics - Animations Xplaned on YouTube

Oberth Effect - Wikipedia.
An Actually Intuitive Explanation of the Oberth Effect - OutsidetheAsylum.blog.
Say your spacecraft starts 1 AU away from a planet, on an inertial trajectory that will bring it close to the planet but not hit it. It takes a year to reach periapsis( closest point to the planet ) going faster and faster the whole way( accelerated by gravity of the planet as you move towards it ). Then it takes another year to reach 1 AU again, slowing down the whole time( slowed by the gravity of the planet as you move away from it ).

Now imagine that you burn prograde( in the direction you are moving ) at periapsis( closest point to the planet ). Now you'll be travelling faster as you leave than you were as you came in. This means that gravity has less time to act on you on the way out than it did on the way in. Of course the gravitational field extends all the way out to 1 AU, but if we take just a sub-region of it, like the region within which the acceleration is at least 1 m/s2, you'll spend less time subject to that level of acceleration.

So the Oberth effect is just a consequence of you maximizing the amount of time gravity works on you in the desired direction, and minimizing it in the other direction.

Understanding the Oberth Effect appears to be an important clue to understanding the relationship of momentum and energy around atoms as well. We are not sure how much this has been considered.

Also the motion of the Sun through space around the Galaxy is important as is the helical motion of the planets orbiting the Sun as it moves through Space. Why are the planets not slowly left behind if it takes time for the gravitational field to reach them? The planets are not just orbiting the Sun, the Sun is travelling at an immense speed, orbiting the center of the Milky Way Galaxy in which it resides, thus the planets must be pulled along with the Sun as it travels. However, according to any calculations we do, such additional motion of the Sun, should cause extreme effects on the orbits of the planets, not just leading to eccentricities for the planets furthest away, but even for planets to be left behind in space. It is as if there is another force holding our solar system together, in its more or less flat shape. is similar to the requirement for another force required to hold the galaxy together, to explain the orbital speeds of the most distance stars from the galactic center. We should also note the galaxy too is moving at immense speed through space, orbiting the great attractor. The explanation for these cases is still to be found.

Escape velocity = Space velocity. In order to overcome the gravitation field you need the escape velocity. This is the velocity required to move against the inflow velocity of the space due to gravity. The space as a flowing river analogy. This is calculated by the: Gullstrand-Painleve Metric

The spiral arms of a galaxy are and interesting vortex characteristic in that they are wave-like regions of higher density. The arms of a galaxy do not rotate like you would think. They are not a region of dense stars which rotates, but only a bunching up of stars as the stars rotate around the galaxy. That is the stars which make up the arms of a galaxy are always changing, new stars move into the arms and stars are always moving out of the arms. In a galaxy this wave-like denser region of stars in the spiral arms of a galaxy, is considered due to an external influence on the orbital motion of the stars, causing them to have an elliptical orbit, rather than a true circular orbit. This elliptical orbital motion results in the formation of the spiral arms as a pattern, but is simply due to the elliptical orbit of all the stars themselves, not due to any greater structure of the galaxy itself. Since orbital motion is almost always elliptical, this type of structure likely applies to much more than just galaxies.

Animation of Galaxy Rotation - Wikipedia Galaxy Rotation Wave

While on the subject of galactic rotations we should mention the abnormality in the velocity curve of galactic rotations. Scientist can predict the revolution of stars around the center of the galaxy using gravitational laws. The prediction from this, is that stars further away from the center of the galaxy should revolve much slower than stars closer the the center of the galaxy., simple because the gravitational attraction falls off with the distance. They can create what is called a 'velocity curve' for the galaxy, which charts the revolution speed of the stars relative to their distance from the center of the galaxy.

What they find is these 'velocity curve' diagrams show the velocity of the stars far away from the center of the galaxy do not slow down as predicted by gravitational attraction of the mass within the galaxy. Simply put, it is as if the galaxy rotates as a whole body, rather than as individual stars revolving due to gravitational attraction alone. Thus they have predicted we are just missing or not seeing all the mass within the galaxies and thus proposed the idea of Dark Matter. It is suggested, the Universe has far more Dark Matter then normal matter.

We can discuss the estimates of the total mass in the Universe. Scientists have estimated the critical density is approximately 10E26 kilograms per cubic metre, which is equivalent to about six protons per cubic metre. What this means is that on average, 1 cubic meter of space in the Universe only contains 6 protons. This being an average, of course we find regions where this is much higher, like within a star or planet, but because of the much greater volume of empty space in the Universe, this averages out to this very low value.

We can then take the estimated volume of the observable universe is approximately 4 x 10E80 m3. Using the calculation of Mass as the product of density and volume, we get the critical density as a mind-boggling mass of the Universe of 4 x 10E54 kilograms. This is about 2,000, billion, billion, billion times the mass of our Sun. This value is all matter of all types in the observable universe.

However, depending how exactly you approximate the mass and size of the observable universe you can come to a number which states that only 4.2 x 10E-21% or 0.0000000000000000000042% of the Universe actually contains any matter. If your were to round up this number to 20 decimal places it comes out to zero. This number is so small that we can accurately state that by our calculations, there is no matter in the Universe. That is on first approximation in Physics the Universe has no matter!

While discussing Dark Matter, we should briefly touch on Dark Energy. Scientist have determined through observation of the motion off other stars and galaxies in the Universe, that everything is moving away from each other. That is it has been observationally determined, the Universe is expanding. Einstein introduced a constant in his theory of Relativity, called the cosmological constant, as a means explain why the Universe did not collapse under the force of its own gravity. He later removed this constant, calling it his 'greatest blunder'.

However today, we have had to add the cosmological constant back in and adjust it, to explain that not only is the Universe not collapsing under its own gravity, it seems there is some force causing it to expand. The force causing this expansion has been named "Dark Energy" and it to is unseen and of unknown composition. Like Dark Matter, it seems to be a very high percentage of the total energy in the Universe, for it to be causing the observed expansion.

The existence of Dark Matter and Dark Energy are still up for debate, but there is no question that our understanding of the motion of galaxies and the Universe is currently incomplete without a better explanation. Currently Dark Matter and Dark Energy fill that requirement.

Vacuum Energy is 10^28 too high of a force to explain the expansion of the Universe. The tendency seems to be rapid expansion. Established physics cannot seem to find the balance between the expansive forces and compressive forces of the Universe. It is as if some force is missing, this is what has been termed "Dark Energy"

Titus-Bode Coincidence and Orbital Mechanics

From: Titus-Bode Rule - SpaceAcademy.net.au.
We can express the Titius-Bode rule by the following mathematical formula:

D(n) = ( 3 x 2n + 4 ) / 10 AU
where n = -infinity, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .....

The table below compares the actual distances to the planets of the solar system, to three significant figures, along with the distances given by the Titus-Bode series formula:

Astronomers saw there was an anomaly, with the formula predicting that a planet should exist at 2.8 AU, but none had yet been discovered at this location in the Solar System. Note that neither Uranus nor Neptune were known at the time. Uranus was not discovered until 1781, and Neptune not until 1846.

Confident in his formula as an accurate representation of some unknown physical principle, Bode urged that a search be made for a planet at the 2.8 AU distance. The formula was given the status of a "law" when William Herschal discovered Uranus in 1781, and this was reinforced in 1801 when Giuseppe Piazzi of Sicily discovered the first asteroid Ceres, which happened to have a mean solar distance of 2.8 AU. Thus today we know there is an asteroid belt orbiting the Sun at 2.8 AU, rather than a planet, but it confirmed there was something to Bode's rule.

Unfortunately, the rule appears to breakdown at greater distances. The error between the formula prediction for Neptune was quite large. And for Pluto it is enormous. Despite many years of investigation, no explanation has been found for any underlying reason that planets should or do follow this formula, and most scientists now regard the Titius-Bode formula as just an interesting near coincidence with reality.

It has even come to the various cosmological and astronomic scientists disregarding entirely any papers even purporting to mention any physical explanation for the Titus-Bode relationship, however some papers are still being published to explain the coincidence.

Indeed, we have even been able to apply the Titus-Bode rule to newly discovered extra-solar systems to discover additional planets around those systems. It is not a direct match for all extra-solar systems, but the ability of this rule to apply to some is certainly interesting.

The following paper suggest the rule occurs due to "the energy balance of a harmonic oscillator in spherical (radial) coordinates", essential the orbits existed prior and the rule causes a concentration of mass at these points due to harmonics between these orbits. Thus this does not seem to provide any explanation as to why the orbits occur where they do, only that once established the rule can apply.

A Physical Interpretation of the Titius-Bode Rule - by Dimitris M. Christodoulou1 and Demosthenes Kazanas

It is also possible to write the Titius series in terms of kilometers rather than astronomical units. We start off with the series 0, 45, 90, 180, 360, 720, ... and then add 60 to each term. This gives us a planetary distance in millions of kilometers, as seen below:

It was interesting on exploring this avenue, the latest paper proposed a correlation of the Titus-Bode rule, with the Bertrand Theorem, and this Theorem discusses various combinations of energy and orbital relationships, based on the nature of the attractive force. If we input attractive forces of different geometries we can achieve drastically different types of orbit, such as an inverse linear force, a constant force or funnel potential ( like the strong force ), a spring force, and even higher exponent forces.

For say a force which increases at the 100 power, rather the square, we get an really interesting situation. Near the source the force becomes close to zero, which means there is no force on the orbit so the orbiting mass follows a straight line, but then at some radius away from the source the force becomes very high, causing a sudden change in direction, thus we can get orbits which resemble the path of a mass bouncing around inside a sphere, following a fixed shape. This is what we tend to see in quantum mechanics.

See this video for a more in depth explanation.Bertrand's Theorem and Orbits in any Dimension - Science meets Fiction on Youtube

Lightning

We will find in this document, a requirement for a better understanding of lightning. In the context of the entire book it is obvious the redacted, missing element is a lightning strike. Lightning would provide a huge input pulse of electromagnetic energy which seems to be the key to this effect. Further the magnetic field of a lightning strike, circles around the flow of current in the lightning bolt, so this would reinforce or coincide with the circular pattern of magnets.A circular pattern of magnets could produce such a 'swirl in the magnetic sea.' They seem to hint at a connection between magnetic field and overcoming gravity.

Have not we oft considered storing the immense power of a lightning bolt for practical use? A single lightning strike contains on average 10 Gigawatts of power. Occasionally reaching to Terawatts. The voltage can be millions to even billions of volts. The energy from a lightning strike is cable of heating the air briefly to around 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit. This sudden thermal expansion of the air produces the intense sound of thunder we can hear for many miles/km around a lightning strike.

System have been suggested to store the electrical energy using magnetic capacitors or ways to store the heat from the power of a lightning bolt and then convert this back to more usable levels of power. Thus far we nothing significant has ever been developed to capture the power of lightning.

Magnetic supercapacitors: Charge storage mechanisms, magnetocapacitance, and magnetoelectric phenomena

What is certain, is that lightning posses more than enough energy to produce electromagnetic influences of many orders of magnitude.

Consider this article which shows a connection between Lodestone and Lightning, saying " ..most, if not all, natural lodestones are produced by lightning strikes." Lodestone is more common on high mountain peaks which are more prone to lightning strikes. Magnetism and Magnetite, Lodestones and Lightning - by Andrew A. Sicree. Popular Mineralogy.

Lightning is a very high amperage flow of current, 5000-200,000 amps, capable of producing very strong magnetic fields. A Lightning discharge's electromagnetic fields are similar to a single wire. You can use the right hand rule to show the direction of the magnetic field around a wire, where your thumb point in the direction of the flow of current in the wire and your fingers curl around that current in the direction of the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field Around Lightning

Atmospheric Electricity

There exists around the entire Earth an immense electrostatic field, extending from the surface of the Earth up into space. This space is estimated to have a voltage of over 100 Volts/meter. That is there is a difference in voltage of almost 200 volts between your head and your feet. Of course we do not feel this voltage at all, and thus are mostly unaware it even exists.

According to Richard Feynman, there are two reasons we do not notice this voltage ourselves. The first, is that because we are essentially grounded, our bodies tend to take on the charge of the ground upon which we stand, being the human body is a relatively good conductor of electricity. This prevents any significant buildup of voltage we could detect. The second reason we do not notice this, is the air is a rather poor conductor of electric charge, which prevents a significant amount of this voltage being conducted as a measurable current.

Electricity in the Atmosphere - Feynman Lectures on Physics II 9.1

Feynman points out there was a remarkable discovery that the ionization of the air, increased as we went to higher altitudes contrary to predictions the ionization was caused by radioactive elements in the Earth itself. This discovery led to investigation into cosmic rays, which are assumed to be responsible for the ionization of the upper atmosphere.

Remarkably, Nikola Tesla first proposed this idea of cosmic rays being responsible for this electrical energy in the atmosphere through his research at Colorado Springs with his very sensitive electrical field detector. An idea which many considered absurd at the time and for which Nikola Tesla is not given credit today. Indeed, even the very notion of the atmospheric electricity appears to be considered more a curiosity than anything of important significance to understand things like the unification of fields.

In fact we find there is a total voltage of over 400,000 Volts between the Earths surface and the approximate top of the atmosphere. There is also a slight current which flows, due to ions in the air, of some 10 microAmps per square meter of Earth's surface. If we take this small current, and consider it over the entire combined surface of the Earth, this comes out to 1800 amps. Thus the total power of the electrical energy flowing into the Earth is some 700 MegaWatts, not a small amount at all. Feynman then asks an important question, where does this immense current come from and why is it not immediately dissipated.

What scientists discovered, is it was lightning which charged the Earth and led to the creation of this immense current. The found a diurnal variation in the strength of the atmospheric electric field, which corresponded with the intensity of lightning around the world. They determined that the powerful air currents formed in thunderstorm clouds, carrying conducting water molecules and ionized dust, can generate immense voltages, of upwards of 100 million volts, which will eventually discharge into the Earth as lightning, replenishing the charge of the Earth.

Interestingly, Feynman points out a little question about the bottom of a thundercloud having a region of positive charge where the most rain falls, despite the bottom of the cloud being predominately negative as required for this process to explain the maintenance of atmospheric electricity. Remarkably, it is just the extreme temperature differences and high moisture in the air, which lead to the creation of the thunderstorm, thus its power is thermodynamic.

We should here point out, Viktor Schauberger built devices which were solely powered through this same process of thermodynamic heat exchange, basically building motors capable of producing significant power through a difference in heat. Viktor Schauberger essentially created a controlled tornado in a machine, capable of generating significant power, which we discuss here: Viktor Schauberger's Vortex Energy

We find in Feynman's explanation, that lightning is considered responsible for charging the atmospheric electricity, and the lightnings power comes from the motion of air and water in thunderstorms, but he points out there is no exact theory as to how the charge separation and immense and quick buildup of charge actually occurs in a thunder cloud. There are numerous theories, about ion movement and charge separation and the dipole nature of water and so on, but no theory has adequately explained all the features of the production of the power of lightning.

Another interesting and curious aspect of lightning not fully understood, is the "stepped leader". When lightning is about to strike a stepped leader forms, "It goes only about 50 meters and stops. It pauses for about 50 microseconds, and then takes another step. It pauses again and then goes another step, and so on. It moves in a series of steps toward the ground,... - Richard Feynman. Only once the stepped leader makes contact with the ground, does the high current, bright return stroke occur, which normally repeats a few times down the same path in rapid succession before ending.

We have some ideas of how lightning occurs, what is does, and investigate it immensely, but many mysteries and questions yet remain.

Telluric Currents

Also a very related, interesting yet wholly underrated avenue of study is that of Telluric currents, or currents of electricity in the ground or ocean of the Earth. We would find this very interesting if we intended to distribute electrical energy through the Earth, or possibly even some means to tap into this energy.

Wikipedia points out there are 32 different methods proposed as explanation for the Telluric currents, but the primary mechanism appears to be geomagnetic due to changes in Earths magnetic field from solar wind. The Telluric currents are detected simply by placing electrodes at various locations on the Earth's surface and measuring the potential difference between them. It is found these currents can have diurnal variations similar to lightning and atmospheric electricity and are extremely low frequency. The currents have been detected deep within the Earth as well. Measurement of Telluric currents and induced currents in the Earth, have been used for geologic and mining exploration for resources in the Earths crust.

We would here point out we elsewhere discuss Nikola Tesla's plan to distribute electricity world wide through the Earth as a Telluric current and his discovery that such currents already existed. You can read more about this discovery here: Nikola Tesla and the Wheelwork's of Nature

James Clerk Maxwell and Electromagnetic Fields

James Clerk Maxwell unified all our concepts of electric fields, magnetic fields and how those fields intereact into one complete set of equations. Maxwell's original theory was published as:
"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" by James Clerk Maxwell, Royal Society Transactions, Vol. CLV, 1865, p 459. The paper was orally read Dec. 8, 1864.

Oliver Heaviside later took the complicated components of quaternion calculations and applied the new mathematics of vector Calculus to put Maxwell's theory into the format it is today. There are some who are of the opinion, including Heaviside himself, that he lost important aspects of Maxwell's original theory, but the real situation is more complex. In order for Oliver Heaviside to convert Maxwell's theory into the vector Calculus version we know today, he did have to drop certain aspects of the theory, specifically the "magnetic potential" which Maxwell used. Oliver Heaviside speculated that had Maxwell been alive at the time, Maxwell would have agreed with Heaviside's decision to drop this concept.

Did Maxwell Originally Write His Equations Using Quaternions - hsm.StackExchange.com

The Long Road to Maxwells Equations - Spectrum.ieee.org

Confusion over the term "Maxwell's equations" sometimes arises because it has been used for a set of eight equations that appeared in Part III of Maxwell's 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, entitled "General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field",[12] and this confusion is compounded by the writing of six of those eight equations as three separate equations (one for each of the Cartesian axes), resulting in twenty equations and twenty unknowns.

How do we go from 8 equations down to the commonly referenced 4 equations?

1. Law of total currents (J needs to include the dD/dt term)
2. Magnetic force is the curl of magnetic potential
3. Ampere's law (curl of H = J)
4. Roughly, Lortentz force: E = v x B - dA/dt - grad phi
5. Definition relating E and D
6. Ohm's law V = IR
7. Gauss' law div D = rho
8. Continuity for J: divergence of J = 0

We can combine 1 and 3, to get { curl H = J + dD/dt )
We can drop magnetic potential
We can drop 5, and just consistently use E or D
We can drop Ohm's law, because it's a different thing
Which gets you down to the "core" four.

Thus, in physics today, we summarize Maxwell's theory as four equations. All electromagnetic fields can be mathematically explained with his four formula. They basically say the following:

1. Electric fields start on a charge and extend into space, or to another charge.
2. Magnetic fields are continuous and always have a north and south pole.
3. A changing electric field creates a magnetic field.
4. A changing magnetic field creates an electric field.

"Let it not be forgotten that Maxwell's theory is only the first step towards a full theory of the aether; and, moreover, that no theory of the aether can be complete that does not fully account for the omnipresent force of gravitation." - Oliver Heaviside, 1893. We discuss the ether elsewhere in this document, here: The Ether.

This table of electromagnetic interactions represents most of the common forces and effects due to electric and magnetic fields. The forces associated with these fields are of most interest. The unique fields produced by a toroidial coil and the electromagnetic fields of light are of interest. We have pointed out one specific configuration of electromagnetic fields which is of interest in this discussion, where the electric and magnetic field both rotate in the same plane, yet are ninety degree's out of phase. Such a specific configuration produces a strong dynamic/force component with little external electromagnetic radiation. This specific case of electromagnetic field interaction is an important case to understanding the role electromagnetism plays in the Universe.

The electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum encompasses likely an infinite band of frequencies and wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The light we see with our eyes, infrared energy of heat, ultraviolet radiation causing sunburn, to radio waves we use for communication, microwaves we use for cooking down very high energy x-rays and gamma rays. All these various forms of energy and light falls within the electromagnetic spectrum.

Image Detailing the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The first image below represents the electromagnetic spectrum of the sun, showing what the sun would look like if different wavelengths of radiation were visible to the human eye. The second image shows a detailed portion of the radio band of the electromagnetic spectrum, to give an idea of the sheer number of different wavelengths existing in a small region of the spectrum.

The scope and divisions of the EM spectrum are evident from these pictures. Light is an electromagnetic wave. All electromagnetic radiation ( light included ) consists of electromagnetic waves commonly represented by the following graphic:

Where the red "E" lines represent the plane of the electric wave travelling through spacer and the blue "B" lines represent the plane of the magnetic wave travelling through space. (Note however this website colors all electrical fields as blue and all magnetic fields as red, with resulting Lorentz force in green )
The wave travels in the direction of the "x" axis in this diagram.

This simple animation demonstrates how an electromagnetic wave is thought to travel through space. The red lines represent the magnetic field lines which exist 90 degrees from the electric field lines in blue. Both the electric and magnetic field lines are 90 degrees from the direction of travel of the wave.

Links explaing electromagnetic waves.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/emwv.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/emwavecon.html#c1

The Below is from: Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves - Phys.Libretexts.org from their University Physics course

Electromagnetic waves bring energy into a system by virtue of their electric and magnetic fields. These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, thus, do work on them. However, there is energy in an electromagnetic wave itself, whether it is absorbed or not. Once created, the fields carry energy away from a source. If some energy is later absorbed, the field strengths are diminished and anything left travels on.

Clearly, the larger the strength of the electric and magnetic fields, the more work they can do and the greater the energy the electromagnetic wave carries. In electromagnetic waves, the amplitude is the maximum field strength of the electric and magnetic fields (Figure 16.4.1 ). The wave energy is determined by the wave amplitude.

Figure 16.4.1

The amplitude of the electric field E is related to the amplitude of the magnetic field B by a factor of c (the speed of light), as in E=cB. The magnetic field component of an electromagnetic field is so tiny that it's not shown in 2-D. You would think then we would be incorrect to show the scale of the electric field and magnetic field to be the same, but this is still valid because the expression E=cB=(1/√ϵ0μ0)B shows that the magnetic energy density uB and electric energy density uE are equal. So despite the magnetic field component being tiny, it carries the same energy density as the electric field, so we can show them at the same scale.

The equality of the electric and magnetic energy densities leads to
u(x,t)=ϵ0E^2=B^2/μ0
The energy density moves with the electric and magnetic fields in a similar manner to the waves themselves.

More generally, the flux of energy through any surface also depends on the orientation of the surface. To take the direction into account, we introduce a vector S, called the Poynting vector, with the following definition:
Vector S = 1/μ0 x Vector E x Vector M (16.4.7)

Because the frequency of visible light is very high, of the order of 10^14 Hz, the energy flux for visible light through any area is an extremely rapidly varying quantity. Most measuring devices, including our eyes, detect only an average over many cycles. The time average of the energy flux is the intensity I of the electromagnetic wave and is the power per unit area.

Speed of Light Related to the Permeability and Permittivity of Free Space According to Maxwell's Formula

Electromagnetic Fields come from Moving Charges

We can greatly simplify our understanding of electromagnetic energy, by realizing that all electromagnetic energy exists entirely due to the velocity and acceleration of charged particles. It is the motion or change of motion of charged particles which create electromagnetic energy and we can only detect electromagnetic energy by its conversion back to motion or change of motion of charge particles.

Cosmic Rays

What are Cosmic Rays? - Space.com

Bandwidth

It is important to consider the concepts of transmission of information especially in regards to bandwidth. There seems to be a relationship between the maximum amount of information which can be carried by certain frequencies which is not often discussed it terms of transmission of electromagnetic energy and gravity. Although there is a connection here. As a region of space/time experiences a relative difference in the time from two different frames of reference, how information is exchanged between those two frames of reference must change according to formula of bandwidth. If the frequency of light changes due to changing velocity, then the bandwidth available for that region changes as well.

Bandwidth limitations for the transfer of data. Voice requires about 2800 Hz of bandwidth, music requires about 20 KHz and video and sound requires about 6 MHz. Could we consider there to be a bandwidth for reality?

Interestingly, a single tone cannot be used to send information. two tones, slight different from each other, produce a beat note( a rise and fall in amplitude( loudness ) at the difference between the two tones. 1000Hz tone + 1001Hz tone, produces a 1Hz beat frequency. We can use this concept to send information, and if we want to send pulses, as we do with digital information, then we run into a simple equation to define a limitation. For a given range of frequencies times a given range of time for the information must equal 1. So for shorter and shorter timing of the information, we need a broader and broader range of frequencies to transmit that information.

The shortest pulse you can transmit with an optical fibre is about a femto second, 10^-15. At this speed, the pulse would almost be a full spectrum between blue and red and any shorter and it would go into the non-visible range and not be capable of being carried by an optical range fibre. This works out to a rough limit of a terabyte per hundredths of a second.

Producing Electromagnetic Waves

We are well aware of the various natural forms of electricity and magnetism, but we know too we can create electromagnetic waves and energy at will for our technical purposes. We use electromagnetic waves, like radio waves and microwaves for communication, sending videos, audio, phone calls, text messages, as well as television and radio. We use microwaves to heat our food, we use these waves for world wide satellite communication. How do we produce these electromagnetic waves?

There are two important components required for the production of electromagnetic waves, a capacitance for which we use components called capacitors and an inductance for which we use components called inductors.Let us quickly review a few concepts related to electricity, before we proceed to explain capacitors and inductors.

Voltage, Current and Resistance

There are three terms used often when discussing electric fields, electricity or the movement of electric charge. We will use a simple water analogy to give a better grasp of what these terms are referring too.

Voltage is like water pressure. Current is like how much water is actually flowing. Resistance is a restriction to the flow of water. With electricity there is a formula know as Ohm's law which relates these three quantities to each other. Ohm's law is simply:
Voltage equals Current times Resistance. V = IR

We can think of this relationship using our water analogy. If you have a garden hose turned on, a certain amount of water will flow out in an arc. The distance it can flow is related to the voltage, the amount of water flowing out is the current, and the size of the hose or hole out of which the water comes is like the resistance.

If we put our thumb or a nozzle on the hose, which restricts the flow of the water, we are putting resistance on the flow of water. By Ohm's law this causes an increase in Voltage, if the amount of water trying to flow( the current ) remains the same. Thus when you reduce the size of the hole the water has to come out of, its pressure increases and you can squirt or shoot the water much further.

We can think of a few examples to explain the voltage and current of electrical power.

• Low Voltage - Low Current : This would be like a drip from a tap, very low pressure of the water and a very small amount of water is flowing.
• High Voltage - Low Current : A good example of this would be a squirt gun. You can shoot the water at high pressure a long distance, but there is not very much water so you wouldn't get very wet.
• Low Voltage - High Current : A large flowing river would be a good example of this. There is a large amount of water flowing, with great power, but it is flowing very slowly and you could walk across it.
• High Voltage - High Current : A good example of this would be a large water fall. You have a large amount of water, falling under immense pressure. A fire hose would be another good example. Both would impact you with a great deal of force if you got in the way of the water.

Another important characteristic of electricity is whether it flows in one direction continuously, like a river or water in a pipe, or whether the flow oscillated back and forth, or flows in pulses. A continuous flow in one direction, is called Direct Current. We could have water which pushes forward, then is pulled backward, then pushes forward again, then pulls backward again. This type of electrical current would be called Alternating Current. This is the form most electrical distribution takes, and this alternating current or oscillating electricity does this back and forth change at a certain rate, measured in Hertz or cycles per second.

The Alternating current in your home usually alternates at either 50 or 60 HZ, or it pushes back and forth 60 times in one second. The last type of electrical current flow, is called Direct Current Pulsed. Direct Current Pulse, is where the flow surges forward in one direction, just for an instant but then stops, then surges again, then stops. This form has a frequency or cycle depending on how many times per second these surges or pulses happen. Thus direct current pulses have features of both direct current and alternating current.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a component which can store an electric charge or electrical potential, measured in Voltage. A capacitor is a very simple component, composed of some thin layer of insulating material, called the dielectric, sandwiched or in between two metal or foil electrodes. A wire or connection can be made to the two metal electrodes. Because the electrodes are separated by an insulator, the dielectric, normal direct current electricity cannot pass through a capacitor. However, the capacitor will increase in voltage.

An early capacitor, called a condenser or Leyden jar, was simply a glass jar with the inside and outside coated with a thin layer of metal. The glass acted as the dielectric, and the inside of the jar was one electrode and the outside the other. Many modern capacitors are made with a flexible insulator and metal foil, which can then be rolled into a cylinder shape, making the capacitor more compact.

When a voltage is applied to a capacitor, it will store up the voltage and hold it, even if the power is removed. You could think of a capacitor sort of like a bathtub, it fills up with water when water flows into it, but when the water stops flowing the bathtub just holds all the water. Then when you open the drain, the water can flow out again.

It is important to note, when a capacitor is charged by a voltage. All the electric field is contained entirely within the capacitor. Capacitors can be made very efficient at storing electric charge. The amount of charge they can store depends upon their size, the area of the dielectric between the electrodes and the distance between the electrodes or thickness of the dielectric between the electrodes. Large capacitors can store a large amount of electrical potential, whereas very small capacitors can only store a small amount.

Large, high voltage capacitors, like those found inside an old television or microwave oven can store a deadly amount of electrical power, even after the power is turned off from such devices, making them very dangerous. Care must be taken to discharge the capacitors, before working on such devices.

Inductors

Whereas a capacitor can store electric charge or electric potential, an inductor stores or holds a current and produces a magnetic field. An inductor is simple a coil of wire, sometimes wound around a Ferrite core, which produces a magnetic field when electrical current flows through it. At first the coil resists the flow of current, as the magnetic field builds to a maximum. When the current is stopped or removed, the inductor will try to maintain the flow of the current, as the magnetic field collapses.

Thus an inductor cannot hold a current for a long period of time, but it does try to maintain the flow of current and it does produce a magnetic field, which are useful properties in electronics which we will discuss.

Other Electronic Components

You can learn about other electronic components and even make your own circuits by doing simple research online. It is beyond the scope of this document to give a full grasp of electronics, but many concepts are discussed and mentioned. Here we will just give a brief overview of some of the most common electronic components and their use.

• Capacitor - stores or filters voltage
• Inductor - stores or filters a current
• Resistor - resists the flow of current
• Diode - allows current to flow in one direction only
• Transformer - used to increase or decrease alternating current or voltage
• Switch - disconnects the flow of current
• Battery or Power Source - provides the current to power the circuit
• Load - something which uses the power from a circuit
• Ground - a common connection in a circuit or a connection to an Earth Ground
• Integrated Circuit - an electronic chip containing many small components which can perform complex functions
• Transistor - a device to amplify or control a current, based on another smaller current

A Simple Radio Circuit to Produce Electromagnetic Waves

A simple radio circuit is capable of producing electromagnetic waves, at radio frequencies. These frequencies are between about 20,000 cycles per second ( 20 KHz ) up to 300,000,000 cycles per second ( 300 GHz ). This range includes microwave frequencies and ends where the electromagnetic waves known as infrared waves begin.

A Radio Circuit

In radio there exists what is termed the "tank circuit" or the "capacitive/inductive" tank." This part of the circuit consists of basically two components, a capacitor and an inductor. In most cases there is also a third component, the resistance but we are only going to focus on the capacitance and inductance in this brief explanation.

The capacitance stores and releases the electrical field component while the inductance stores and releases the magnetic field component.

An antenna is simply connected to one side of the capacitor/inductor and the ground is connected to the opposite side of the capacitor/inductor. As electrical oscillation occurs from one side of the capacitor to the other an electrical oscillation is set up in the antenna. As this electrical oscillation travels first one way through the inductor and then the other way, a magnetic field oscillation occurs. The magnetic field of the inductor contributes to the continued oscillation within the tank by maintaining the flow of current. In most radio transmitters this circuit can be energized by an input of oscillations of similar frequency.

It works in the following manner. The electric charge is stored in the capacitance and initializes current flow into the inductor as the charge attempts to neutralize in the capacitance. Once the current reaches its maximum the capacitance is now uncharged and the magnetic field is at maximum. As the magnetic field collapses it recharges the capacitance through its desire to maintain current flow until the capacitor is recharged with the opposite polarity. Once the magnetic field completely collapses the capacitor has reached its maximum charge. The cycle then repeats in the opposite direction causing an alternating electromagnetic field in the antenna. This oscillation can be maintained through the introduction of a resonant signal which has greater power than the losses of the system.

Since power transfer is at a maximum to this system only when the input power frequency is the same as the natural harmonic of the tank, a tank can be tuned to a selective frequency. By adjusting the tuning of the tank circuit, selective frequencies can be tuned in. Only a frequency which matches, or resonates, with the natural frequency of the capacitor/inductor circuit, will increase the power in the circuit. Thus we can receive that specific frequency, as it is the only one which increases the power in the circuit, which can be detected and the signal filtered out. In radio systems this signal is used to carry some sort of information and the reception or transmission of the electromagnetic energy is used to communicate that information over long distances.

The Radio Oscillator Circuit Formula

Microwave ovens and Microwave communication use a more complex device called a "Magnetron" to produce the high frequency microwaves. A capacitor and inductor would become too small to produce microwaves. Thus a special copper chamber is used, in which the electrons of the electricity themselves are made to revolve in circles, around a magnetic field, to get the desired frequency of electromagnetic radiation.

A Microwave Oven Magnetron

Principles of Electromagnetodynamics

These electromagnetodynamic diagrams show the relative relationship of the forces at work surrounding electromagnetic fields. We try to maintain a convention on this site and will always show the electric field in blue, the magnetic field in red, and the resultant force in green. The principle at work here is the Lenz Law or Lorentz force. In all cases where an electric field exists perpendicular to a magnetic field there will be an associated force which is itself perpendicular to both the electric field and the magnetic field. This principle was first discovered by Michael Faraday.

The principles defined here are the means by which all electric motors and electrical generators work today. They are in a very real sense, the foundation upon which our modern electrical civilization has been built. Our civilization has progressed because we have greatly advanced and expanded on how these principles are applied and developed this technology to a great degree.

Lorentz Derivation of Lorentz Force - physics.stackexchange.com

Careful re-examination of Mr. Faraday's Simple Mercury Motor leads to a more generalized expression of the Lorentz force.


Faraday's Simple Mercury Motor Experiment

Link to a modern replication of Faraday's Simple Mercury Motor

Electromagnetodynamic Force


The Motor Generator Principle


Electromagnetic Field of a
Current Carrying Wire

Difference Between AC and DC Generator - geeksforgeeks.org

These three applets concern the generation of AC and DC electricity and the reciprocal of generation, Lenz's law which is how motors are driven with electricity.

Direct Current Generator

Alternating Current Generator

Lenz's Law ( Motor Rule )

Sci-toys.com
Understand electromagnetic theory instantly with these simple to build, hands on examples! Easily build a motor, an ion motor, a railgun, and other cool devices in just a few minutes. Don't just read about it, try it and see these principles work for yourself!

Electric Motor Principles - Electric Motor Principles from the University of Sydney.

Besides these common applications of generation and motive power from electricity ( which exist in everything from an electric toothbrush to a portable RV electrical generator, there are many more unusual applications of the motor principle, or Lenz's law. By examining some of the most complex uses of electromagnetism for motors and pumps, some very unusual and counter-intuitive applications of electromagnetic fields and their resulting forces.

Motor/Generator Principle

We can ask, "Explain why Fb = qv x B?" or more specifically, "Why is the force on a moving charge perpendicular to the electric field and perpendicular to the magnetic field?"

The solution, as defined within the context of this entire discussion, is because the force is a different component of electromagnetic energy. The Lorentz force is very much related to the concept of the Poynting Vector which defines how electromagnetic fields transfer energy. The energy is always transferred in the direction of propagation of the wave, yet the wave itself oscillates transversely or perpendicular to the direction of velocity.

The force is due to the direction of the transfer of energy, the transfer of the momentum of the electromagnetic wave, not due to the oscillation direction of the electric or magnetic fields themselves. The understanding of this concept, leads to a much simpler understanding of what electromagnetic fields really are and how they transfer momentum and acceleration or charged masses.

To clarify this explanation, just remember from our precious discussion on electromagnetic fields, It is the motion or change of motion of charged particles which create electromagnetic energy. The actual motion of the charges, creates electromagnetic fields which are perpendicular to that motion. The motion itself, is always perpendicular to the electromagnetic fields related to that motion. The charged particle may move back and forth in one direction, but this causes a change in electric field in a direction perpendicular to that motion. The magnetic field created by this motion and the electric field, will thus be perpendicular to both of these.

Visualize this relationship like this. If a particle moves back and forth, lets say up and down, the force it experiences, its change in momentum is in this same direction, up and down. However, the change in charge is seen from a different perspective, we see the charge move up and down, but this causes a wave which propagates right to left. So to the magnetic field oscillation, propagates then, front to back. The motion of the charge, causes waves in the electric and magnetic field, which move away in a different direction than the motion of the charge itself.

In the following animation, notice the particles are merely oscillating up and down, but this motion results in the appearance of a wave, which moves right to left. Thus the motion of the particle, is perpendicular to the resulting wave motion.

Transverse Electrical Wave

Magnetohydrodynamics

Creative Engineers Image
Flat Linear Induction Pump for Molten Aluminum

Magnetohydrodynamics is a field of electromagnetic pumping which uses the Lenz law and Lorentz Force to pump liquids using only an electromagnetic field. Although the word "Magnetohydrodynamics" sounds complicated, it is really quite simple. They are using a magnetic field, "Magneto", and a liquid, "Hydro" and their is a pumping motion "Dynamic", hence it is a "Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic" pump.

This unique concept allows magnetohydrodynamics to pump conducting liquids with absolutely
" No Moving Parts "
There is simply a changing electromagnetic field developed through the medium being pumped which will cause it to move.

The most common application of these electromagnetodynamic pumps is in the metal industry where molten metal can be pumped and stirred without contact, right through the walls of the vessel containing the molten metal. Pumps of this type are utilized in nuclear reactors where liquid sodium is pumped through the reactor core for cooling. The high temperature and reactivity of this molten salt would destroy any normal impeller. By pumping right through the walls of the piping the dangerously radioactive salt is isolated from the pumps themselves which is beneficial for safety and maintenance reasons. In fact, the rate of flow of these liquids can be measured without contact with the liquid by applying the reverse of this principle.

It should be stated here that although these Electromagnetodynamic pumps and propulsion methods work and their concepts possess very desirable characteristics for use in propulsion, there are considerable problems and new issues to resolve. In most cases magnetohydrodynamics relies on highly conductive media such as molten metal, sea water, or high temperature plasma. There is also the requirement for the production of large, powerful magnetic field, which is normally very heavy and power intensive. On the plus side, electromagnetodynamic action still applies to non-conductors( through the displacement current ), non-magnetic material( with intense enough magnetic fields ) and even in vacuum( as we know vacuum can carry electromagnetic field ).

The links below will introduce the Alternating Current Conduction Pump, which is unusual in it provides a unidirectional force from an alternating electromagnetic field, and some of the other more specialized and complicated magnetohydrodynamic designs, including those for ship and submarine propulsion.

Creative Engineer's Ltd AC Conduction pumps brochure
An excellent description of AC conduction pumps

Link to Creative Engineer's Ltd Homepage

Rex Research Electromagnetic Ship Propulsion Web site

Build your own MHD drive in a few minutes.

Another very simple, homebuilt example of Magnetohydrodynamics.

Popular Science Article on the Yamato A superconducting, magnetohydrodynamically propelled ship.

Popular Science Article called Jet Ships

Optimal Design of Thruster System for Superconducting Electromagnetic Ship Propulsion

A brief Popular Science article about the 1967 Magnetohydrodynamic Submarine called the EMS-1.
Note there are no propulsion intakes nor exhausts, no moving parts and no onboard propellant and no engine. The sub operates as the armature of a motor, the seawater as a stator.

Another image of the EMS-1, Electromagnetic Submarine

Here is the only video I could find of this electromagnetic submarine, developed by the University of California in Santa Barbara. EMS-1 Electromagnetic Test Video

Time Magazine article, Run Silent, Run Electromagnetic.
Discusses the EMS-1 Electromagnetic Field Propulsion Submarine. A silent propulsion system with no moving parts, no intakes or exhausts, no onboard propellant and no engine.

Quite Electric DriveDiscusses the existence of a top secret US Navy propulsion system, likely related to electromagnetic field propulsion. Thus research continued and this system likely represents a perfected form of the MHD thruster.

Types of Electromagnetic Pumps

Diagrams from,"The Handbook of Electromagnetic Pump Technology",by Richard S. Baker and Manuel J. Tessier.Elsevier. New York. Amsterdam. London.

These are the five most commonly used electromagnetic pumps as explained in detail from researches being done at the "Energy Technology Engineering Center", while under the operation of Rockwell International in Canoga, California. Of particular interest to the discussion here is the AC conduction pump.

The ability of this alternate current powered electromagnetic pump to create a unidirectional flow in a medium without any rectification of the electric or magnetic fields is very interesting for numerous reasons. In fact this particular design could be split into two section and each half would still work although somewhat less efficiently than the design shown.

The helical induction pump was designed for use in nuclear power stations for its ability to pump reactive molten sodium metal without any outside contact. This was important as the molten sodium was being used as a coolant and heat transfer medium in early nuclear reactor designs, so this ability to pump the sodium through the walls of the containment systems was ideal, as the sodium would be in contact with the radioactive nuclear core. This isolation was safer and allowed maintenance of the system without exposing the sodium.

The Types of Electromagnetic Pumps

Alternating Current Conduction Pump

Direct Current Conduction Pump

Annular Linear Induction Pump

One-sided Flat Linear Induction Pump

Helical Induction Pump

Helical Rotor Induction Pump

Electromagnetodynamic Cosmology

To grasp electromagnetodynamics, the only thing you need to learn is the Right Hand Rule for the Lorentz Force. All electromagnetic propulsion, generators and motors rely upon this rule to operate. The right hand rule applies to all volumes of Space/Time, including the Earth, the Sun, Galaxies and further into the Universe. You can use the right hand rule to show the Lorentz force as the cause of the Earth's rotation, which you can see for yourself. This concept applies to your motion on the Earth at this very moment in time.

The Right Hand Rule

Magnetic Field direction
You can see for yourself the direction of the magnetic field acting on your body right now, with a simple magnetic compass, and you will find the magnetic field acts in the North/South direction.

Electric Field direction
There is a large electrical field acting in the vertical or Up/Down direction, from the surface of the Earth into space. This electrical field in the vertical direction is as atmospheric electricity. Lightning is considered responsible for this electrical potential around the Earth.

Lorentz Force direction
Knowing the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the electric field acting upon you, we can use the Right Hand Rule to predict the direction of the Lorentz Force. The right hand rule predicts the force will be in the East/West direction, which is the direction in which the Earth rotates.

Using the Right Hand Rule, we can see the fundamental forces at work which define the space you sit in right now.

The only thing confusing about the Right Hand Rule is there are a few different explanations of it online. Sometimes it is called Fleming's Left Hand Rule, and there is another right hand rule for showing the direction of a magnetic field around a current, which is a little different.

Basically, the right hand rule is a way to show the relationship of forces in three different dimensions, x/y/z or Up/down Left/Right Front/Back, by pointing the digits of your hand in three different directions. The Lorentz equation states there is a specific relationship between these three forces, which always act according to this rule. They sometimes call this crossed fields or BxB or ExB or ExE where B represents the magnetic field and E or I(current) represents the electric field. The force is usually an F or v for force or velocity.

If you can use the Right Hand Rule and understand what it represents, then you have a fundamental understanding of Electromagnetodynamics. The science of electromagnetodynamics is a vast field of research encompassing many aspects of the Universe in which we live.

Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén

"A very few lonely pioneers make their way to high places never before visited . . . they create the living conditions of mankind and the majority are living on their work." — Kristian Birkeland

Kristian Birkeland is most famous for his development of the magnetic Terrella ( Latin for little Earth ) with which he was able to demonstrate many plasma phenomena on a small scale in his lab. Kristian Birkeland successfully demonstrated with his Terrella, the Aurora around the Earth were a plasma interacting with the Earth's magnetic field. Kristian Birkeland further proposed the idea of vast currents in space, which would interact with each other, forming immense plasma channels and vast electric circuits through space. He noticed there was a tendency for plasma channels to twist together due to their similar magnetic field directions, causing them to form filamentary, helical strings of plasma, rather than just random distributions in space.

"The magnetic globe was then made the cathode in the vacuum-box, and experiments were carried on under these conditions for many years. It was in this way that there gradually appeared experimental analogies to various cosmic phenomena, such as zodiacal light, Saturn's rings, sun-spots and spiral nebulae." - Kristian Birkland

Kristian Birkeland - from Wikipedia

Terrella - from Wikipedia

   
   
A Terrella and the real Aurora on various planets.

We can readily reproduce the Birkeland currents in any plasma globe or device, as we see the currents follow specific paths and are not just a diffuse glow. We can also see the effect, simply by passing current through two wires suspended vertically, their ends suspended in a conducting liquid so the hanging wires are free to move and twist together when current flows through them. We see through this effect, that not only are the magnetic fields attracting the wires together, there is also a angular or rotational character to the fields, causing them to take on this helical form.

Birkeland Currents

Filamentary structure in the Veil Nebula

Contrary to online misinformation, astronomers do recognize vast magnetic fields and currents flowing through long distances through space. They have recently determined there is a magnetic field in the filament or bridge between the Large Magellanic cloud and the Small Magellanic cloud, which spans an immense distance.

"Not only are entire galaxies magnetic, but the faint delicate threads joining galaxies are magnetic, too"
"Everywhere we look in the sky, we find magnetism." - Bryan Gaensler from the University of Toronto.

Detection of a Coherent Magnetic Field in the Magellanic Bridge through Faraday Rotation - J. F. Kaczmarek, C. R. Purcell, B. M. Gaensler, N. M. McClure-Griffiths, J. Stevens

Hannes Alfvén is a noble prize winner for his work on Magnetohydrodynamics and Plasma physics. He proposed the current explanation we have for the Aurora and did extensive investigations of the Earth's magnetic field, the Van Allen Radiation belts, the effect of the Sun on the Magnetosphere and cosmic plasma dynamics. He proposed the idea of Alfvén waves, which are waves of plasma along magnetic field lines, which have been used to solve various cosmological problems.

Hannes Alfvén - from Wikipedia

In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region, it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents. Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances. The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents. The latter are likely to give space, as also interstellar and intergalactic space, a cellular structure. - Hannes Alfvén

Hannes Alfvén's Heliospheric Current Circuit of the Solar System

Of interest is the work of Hannes Alfvén lead to the discovery of Magnetoacoustic or Magnetosonic waves, which in turn led to the development of the sciences of coronal seismology or the study of the seismology of the Sun from Earth through observations of the plasma effects from its surface. We elsewhere discuss the ideas of solar seismology and the concept of a sound from the Sun. There is a clear relationship between electric fields, magnetic fields and acoustic/sonic or pressure waves in the environment in which these waves propagate.

Both the work of Kristian Birkeland and then in turn Hannes Alfvén was criticized by the established scientists of the time, specifically Sydney Chapman "who argued the mainstream view that currents could not cross the vacuum of space". If only Mr. Chapman were alive today to see that established scientist consider electric fields to be able to cross space without any medium whatsoever. Chapman was obviously proven wrong when satellites proved such currents exist in space surrounding planets. There is little doubt such currents exist at all scales in the Universe and we find it puzzling why anyone would question this idea.

Despite the obvious experimental evidence for Birkland's work in being able to reproduce exactly the same effects of aurora and sun spots on a small scale, the Terrella is no longer widely used for the study of these phenomenon. We find similar experimental reproductions in the lab of artificial galaxy like structures and the idea of "plasmoids" or stable forms of "plasma and magnetic fields" a term coined by Winston H. Bostick, again which has been relegated to the realm of pseudoscience despite being to actually demonstrate and reproduce the effects in a laboratory. Our own opinion is a practical demonstration of an effect is worth a hundred times more than any purely mathematical or theoretical work.

The big argument against the existence of such large scale cosmological structures in the Universe seems to be an idea of "charge neutrality" where the division of charge is supposed to cancel and sum over large distances. However, astronomers admit magnetic fields exist across these vast distances, which by association confirms electric currents must exist as well. A magnetic field cannot exist without an associated electric current. We even associate the magnetic field in a permanent magnet as due to atomic electric currents.

We see further evidence for such electromagnetic structure through images of these filamentary structures connecting huge systems in space. Thus despite these objections to the idea, we are not sure how we follow that plasma currents which work at small and medium scales, suddenly stop working at larger scales. They clearly provide significant evidence and a practical explanation for many effects. Further the complete dismissal of the electric universe ideas is very unscientific, as there is clear relevance and evidence for many of the proposals of the theory. We are not saying the electric universe ideas are entirely correct and complete, but then again neither is modern established cosmology entirely correct and complete.

The primary argument against the electric universe idea, is the electric universe proposes the Sun gets its energy from an external electrical circuit with the galaxy, and scientist argue the Sun is clearly nuclear fusion powered. We do not discount the existence of nuclear power as a significant contribution to the output of the Sun, but neither do we discount the Sun as being part of a vast galactic electric circuit which plays some role in its processes. If we truly understood the fusion power of the Sun, we should be able to create stable fusion power sources now in the lab, which we have yet to accomplish, thus clearly some important factor is missing from our understanding of stable solar fusion.

Interesting, although of the utmost importance and relevance to cosmology and an understanding of the Universe the work of both Kristian Birkland and Hannes Alfvén always faced criticism and was considered fringe theory. Little if any reference is made to his work in modern textbooks and physics, despite is obvious relevance and significance. The modern concept of the Electric Universe follows the work of both these individuals and too is considered a fringe theory of little relevance. We are not sure why there is such a effort to discredit work in this field.

Scientists clearly know that electrodynamics and magnetohydrodynamics must play a significant if not more powerful role in cosmology than gravity alone, yet continue to berate and dismiss efforts in the field. How puzzling.

Alfvén–Klein cosmology - from Wikipedia

Electricity in Space - Hannes Alfvén

"When I describe [plasma phenomena] according to this formalism most referees do not understand what I say and turn down my papers. With the referee system which rules US science today, this means that my papers are rarely accepted by the leading US journals." - Hannes Alfvén

Winston H. Bostick - from Wikipedia

Other people who are relevant and of interest in the electromagnetodynamic cosmology are Dr. Charles E R Bruce, Ralph E Juergens and Dr Halton Arp.

The Sonic Spectrum

Besides the electromagnetic spectrum there is another spectrum of energy which is in need of introduction. The sound, phononic or mechanical vibration spectrum. Unlike the transverse nature of the electromagnetic waves, these sound waves, mechanical or phononic waveforms are longitudinal in nature. Sound waves require some medium, like air, water or even solid materials like metal, mediums which can be compressed to carry the wave energy. Whereas electromagnetic waves are thought to not require a medium.

Presently the sound spectrum covers a relatively small band of frequencies and wavelengths when compared to the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is considered to extend from extremely long wavelengths of kilometers ( less than 1 Hz )or more to extremely short wavelengths of million, millionths of a meter( a million billion Hz ). The sound spectrum is only spoken of as ranging from Infra-sound which is less than 100Hz to Ultrasound which can be over 1 billion Hz. In most cases, when we talk about a sonic spectrum, or sound spectrum, we are referring to the range of sound which we can hear with our ears. This range of the sound spectrum the human ear can hear, is only between about 20 HZ to 20,000 HZ. Some animals are capable of hearing sounds lower or higher than what is audible to humans. Elephants have been proven to be capable of hearing infrasound over long distances and bats can here sound frequencies in the ultrasound range up to 100,000 HZ.

Since sound is very dear to our senses, we have developed many different ways to produce sound and more importantly we create music. There are certain qualities of music and sound which we would like to further explain.

Octaves in music are a series of 8 notes between two notes when one is double the pitch of the other. In music an octave would be the notes, C D E F G A B C. We can consider an octave, a doubling of frequency or a 2:1 ratio between successive notes or frequencies. An octave is the interval between the 1st and 2nd harmonics of a harmonic series. Musical notes, on progressively higher octaves have a tendency to sound similar even though they are different frequencies and have a harmonic sound when combined.

The intensity or loudness of a sound, appears to increase as the pitch increases, even for a given volume. This seems to collaborate that higher frequencies carry more energy for a give amplitude.

The Tone or Timbre of a sound is the quality which distinguishes the differing sounds of the same tone when played on different instruments. We can tell the difference between the not C, played on a piano, guitar or flute and tone is the name for these differing sounds. The tone is due to a mixture of other frequencies and differences in the sound produced by specific instruments. Only a synthesizer is capable of generating pure tones.

The Harmonic Series is the range of frequencies which are some whole number multiple of a fundamental frequency. For a fundamental frequency of 1, the harmonics would be:
1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, ... etc.

It is interesting to note the concept of music and musical instruments goes very far back in the history of man. Music and sound has played an important role in society, science and the understanding of waves and their combinations has been developed for centuries. We can even consider there is some deep relevance to the concept called "The Music of the Spheres" wherein the principles of music, like octaves are considered important to formation and function of reality, including the positions of planets and other physical processes.

Indeed, we find the unusual situation of the Titus-Bode formula, capable of calculating the distances of the planets in our solar systems and its fundamental requirement for the doubling of distance plus some additional factor. The additional factor, is required to convert the resulting numbers to the current scale we are trying to use. These numbers in the Titus-Bode formula differ depending whether we are calculating planetary distances using Astronomical Units or Kilometers. Perhaps there is some scale in which we can utilize a pure doubling?

Infrasound and Ultrasound

Infrasound is sound much lower in frequency than the sounds we can normally hear with our ears. The human ear is capable of hearing sound as low as 20 Hz, or 20 cycles per second and up to about 20,000 Hz, but this is not a limit to the sound waves themselves. Sound can go much higher than the ranges the human ear can hear, but at this point can we still call it sound? Sound seems to apply to those frequencies of vibrations we can hear, although scientists do use the terms Infrasound and Ultrasound to denote frequencies of vibration higher and lower than the range humans can hear.

Infrasound - from Wikipedia

Ultrasound - from Wikipedia

It is interesting to note in this Wikipedia article they mention various physiological effects Infrasound can have on the human body, including causing feelings of unease or fear. There are also dangerous health issues from exposure to Infrasound, including damage to organs which shake or resonant with these low, powerful vibrations. There is likely much more research which could be done in the field of Infrasound and Ultrasound, possibly even into even lower ranges and higher ranges than previously explored.

Such extremely low frequency sound waves or extremely high frequency sound waves, even those into the same ranges as light, ultraviolet and x-rays, may not be capable of being propagated by air, but they may exist in other forms in other materials. Indeed, we speculate in this discussion on the existence of a full and complete spectrum of sound or mechanical vibration over the entire spectrum which exists for electromagnetic waves.

Infrasound refers to sound or vibration frequencies below 20 HZ down to about 0.001 Hz. Ultrasound refers to sound or vibration frequencies above 20 KHz up to a few Giga Hz, 10,000,000,000 Hz. We would ask, Do vibrations stop at these frequency ranges between 0.001 HZ and 10 GHz, or is there an even broader range of mechanical vibration frequencies?

Elephant Infrasounds: Long-range Communication - Michael Garstang on ScienceDirect.com

Hail the First Sound Lasers - Scientist create the first Saser or Sound laser.

The Wave/Particle Duality of Electromagnetic Radiation

When scientists first began to understand light, they considered it to be a very tiny, fast particle. Eventually, through experimentation and extensive debate, it was realized that light had properties of a wave. Further experimentation showed that light had both the properties of a wave and the properties of a particle. This is known as the wave/particle duality of electromagnetic radiation. The reason for this duality has never been completely explained and remains a perplexing problem in physics to this day.

Quanta

We often hear of people who consider quantum mechanics to mean, "energy is quantized" but this is considered a misunderstanding of quantum mechanics. At present in our theoretical models of particle interactions all the variables are continuous, both space-time and energy momentum. This means they can take any value from the field of real numbers. It is the specific solution of quantum mechanical equations, with given boundary conditions that generates quantization of energy.

The same is true for classical differential equations, as far as frequencies go. Sound frequency can take any value, and its quantization in specific modes depends on the specific problem and its boundary conditions.

There exist limits given by the value of the constants that are used in elementary particle quantum mechanical equations. It is the Planck length and the Planck time and the reciprocal of the Planck time can be interpreted as an upper bound on the frequency of a wave. This follows from the interpretation of the Planck length as a minimal length, and hence a lower bound on the wavelength.

Thus energy is not quantized and we apply quantization primarily to the energy/absorption and radiation of photons from atoms. In reality, photons can take on any frequency/wavelength and are only restricted to specific quanta when they interact with matter. One should not confuse quanta with the particle nature of a photon or think of it as a limit to a photons energy.

• the electron can only have certain energy around an atom, can only occupy certain states
• there is a lowest state in every atom, no electron can occupy anything less than this
• the electron can only jump between these states
• the states can be changed by a magnetic field ( Zeeman effect )
• the states depend somehow on the fine structure constant

In the Universe there could theoretically, be electron energy transition levels which can release photons of increasingly higher and higher energies, up to some frequency approaching infinity, at which point a single emitted photon would have a wavelength approaching 0, and more energy than the total energy in the Universe. We can speculate on if the Universe is indeed some sort of single, immense, infinite energy photon, but this is pure speculation.

We can also consider the reverse situation where we have the frequency of the photon approaching zero, and thus its associate wavelength approaching infinity, which would then be a photon whose size is presumably larger than the entire Universe. We can speculate, perhaps there is some sort of Universe sized wave propagating back and forth between the origin and edge of the Universe, but again this is entirely speculation. It would be interesting to calculate the frequency of a photon which had the entire energy of the Universe or the energy of a photon which was the wavelength of the size of the Universe.

Can we explain how the energy of an electromagnetic wave depends on its amplitude, whereas the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency?

There is a connection here to our discussion of the force field of a photon and the electromagnetic fields and amplitude of which it is composed. There seems to be some change in approach to the physics when discussing electromagnetic field energy and then the energy of a photon, but these two things are not separate. So there is some misinterpretation about why a photon's energy becomes limited to its frequency, rather then the amplitude of the electromagnetic fields of which it is composed.

There does not appear to be a straightforward answer to this question. The obvious answer is the the Poynting Vector determines an average intensity of the energy of the electromagnetic wave and this average energy can be converted to a number of photons of various frequencies which carry that same average energy. Thus the amplitude becomes a number of photons all of a given frequency whose energy added together approximates the average energy at that amplitude.

When we have an antenna, especially in the case of AM radio ( Amplitude Modulated ), then what is occurring is the antenna is said to be either emitting more or less photons as the amplitude modulation. Established physics states all electromagnetic radiation is caused by the relaxation of electrons (and other particles and quasi-particles ) and the emission of photons during this time. Another source of EM radiation does not exist. Therefor every EM radiation consists of photons. EM radiation is a stream of photons.

Introduction to the Physics of Atoms Molecules and Photons - phys.libretexts.org, Quantum Mechanics

What is the relationship between the Poynting Theorem and Reciprocity Theorem - Physics.StackExchange.com

An Interesting Problem of Light Intensity and Photons

In the classical theory of light as a wave, as light propagates its intensity decreases with the square of the distance. Intensity is power over area, as distance increases the area increases at the square of the distance, thus intensity decreases at the square of the distance.

However, in Quantum mechanics, light is composed of photons, so when a source emits light, it emits a fixed number of photons, the photon flux. Thus the photons must spread out as they travel a distance from their source. The same number of photons, becomes spread out, as their distance increases, and the area they must cover increases as the square of that distance. Thus at some far distance it is possible the photons would become so far apart you would find places where there was no light detected anymore, no photons would be seen from that source.

Quantum mechanics solves this problem by suggesting, a photon has a wave function with a spherically shaped, probability distribution. This means that the probability of finding a photon when measuring for it, is the same on any point of the surface of the sphere. Therefore the bigger the sphere, the greater the area, the less probability you will have of finding a photon. Photon flux is defined as the number of photons measured in a point in a period of time, therefore it diminishes proportional to the square of distance to the source. Thus even though the space between photons becomes so great as it should be unlikely to find a photon at every point on the surface of the sphere, you still can as there is always some probability of find one.

This seems though to present a problem. This seems to suggest the photons are particles only when detected, but waves otherwise. This is the wave/particle duality problem of quantum mechanics. Which is it? Quantum mechanics says it is both, until you measure it.

The problem with this is, if photon's are indeed particles, and this is how light is propagated, then there should be regions at great distance, where we can no longer detect a photon, due to the diminished intensity and the very low probability. This seems highly unlikely. We would here predict, there is no possibility of not detecting light at great distance in which the intensity is greatly diminished. That is the light is propagating as a wave front, and the detection of a photon is the detection of a specific characteristic of that wave front, not the detection of a particle.

Light propagates as a wave, a wave which has an energy component which can interact as a particle of specific energy. Thus even at extreme distance and extremely diminished intensity, if one were to attempt to detect the light at that far off point, one would always discover a photon of energy ( E=hf ) for that light, at every point on the wave front. The probability is %100 a photon is detected and the intensity of light is not equivalent to a "photon flux". Although this can work mathematically, a "photon flux" does not represent reality.

Quantum Mechanics

This is just some brief interesting concepts from quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is exceedingly complex and we would never profess to be able to cover its concepts sincerely, but we definitely want to touch on the idea of 'hidden variables'. In order to discuss 'hidden variables' we need to cover some fundamental developments and experiments in quantum mechanics.

The Photo-Electric Effect

This effect concerned certain metals emission of electrons when exposed to light. The effect became significant as the forerunner to the ideas of quantum mechanics and put an end to fully wave theories of light. It is mostly due to the discovery of the odd nature of the photoelectric effect, an effect we consider the best evidence for electromagnetic waves to have a quantum, particle nature. The photoelectric effect has these characteristics.

• The Kinetic Energy of the emitted Electrons is independent of the brightness/intensity of the light, but the number of electrons emitted was effected
• The Kinetic Energy of the emitted Electrons is dependent on the Frequency of the light, where increased Frequency caused increased Kinetic energy
• Below a threshold frequency, no electrons would be emitted regardless of intensity
• The duration of the applied light had no effect

This led Einstein to suggest light consisted of 'photons' or particle like packets of energy and thus had particle characteristics. He developed the equation to calculate the energy of a photon which used the newly discovered Plank constant and related the frequency of the photon to its energy.
Ek = hf Where Ek is the kinetic energy of the electron, h is Plank's constant and f is the frequency of the light

Plank Values

The four universal constants that, by definition, have a numeric value 1 when expressed in Plank units are:

• c, the speed of light in vacuum
• G, the gravitational constant
• ħ, the reduced Planck constant
• kB, the Boltzmann constant

Frank-Hertz experiment

The Frank-Hertz experiment was an attempt to disprove the idea's proposed by the Bohr-Sommerfeld paper in 1916, but instead confirmed the reality of Quantum Mechanics. The experiment demonstrated that when electrons were passed through a mercury gas, it was found the electrons lost a specific amount of energy equivalent to a spectrum line of mercury. Classical theory predicted the electrons could have any energy value and would not lose discrete values of energy. This was an attempt to disprove "Bohr's nonsense" or quantum mechanics, but the results supported quantum theory. The electrons did not have just any energy values but id lose discrete values of energy.

The Stern-Gerlach experiment

The Stern-Gerlach experiment used a gradient of magnetic field to deflect the path of silver ions and the results were collected on a plate. Classical predictions were the distribution would be uniform, but quantum theory predicted two distinct lines should occur. The experiment was based on the following concepts, very greatly simplified here.
There was mathematics defining the Quantization of space using three quantities, K=r, K= Φ, K=θ which represented the 3 axis ( for elliptical orbits ). This leads to three principles for those axis, n=principle, k=azimuthal, and m=magnetic and if we have cos alpha = mh/l vector, then we develop a 'quantization of space', which was considered only a mathematical curiosity at the time. Since in a magnetic field the momentum was considered quantized, only two states where predicted by quantum theory, whereas classical theory predicted any momentum was possible.
For for n=1, quantum theory predicted spin up and spin down, and the third state was unstable, ( this is related to the Zeeman effect as a magnetic field is involved ).
The results supported quantum theory, as two distinct paths were shown on the plate, demonstrating the electron only had two states and the energy was not continuous as predicted by classical theory.

Magneton
mu = IA where I ( current ) = charge/orbital period, A = area
Pauli developed Bohr's magneton
mu B = eh / 2me
This formula became important for the Stern-Gerlach experiment

The Ultraviolet Catastrophe

This problem is given as one of the failures of classical theory requiring the introduction of quantum mechanics to resolve. For Blackbody radiation, the energy released increases as you go into higher and higher frequencies, so we would expect energy output from Blackbody radiation to increase to infinity as the frequency of the emitted radiation approached ultraviolet frequencies. This does not happen in reality though, so there must be something preventing the Ultraviolet Catastrophe. Because it was determined energy can only be emitted in quanta this was used to explain the detected energy curve emitted by Blackbody radiation and is used as evidence why classical theory had to become quantized.

It was determined the probability of an oscillator to emit energy of a high amount, as a single high frequency photon, was much lower than for many smaller energy, lower frequency photons to be emitted. This was how the quantization of electromagnetic radiations solves the Ultraviolet Catastrophe. There seems to be a deeper implication or meaning behind this, for what mechanism causes this probability to exist?

Quantum Spin

Quantum spin is a state, not a physical spin. Thus according to established physics, although they use this idea of a "Spin State" and find correlation to its existence in experimentation, they would say it is not real and there is no understanding of what quantum spin actually represents in reality. The "Spin State" is a mathematical representation of various states and how much rotation is required to return to a specific state. This led to concepts like Spinors. There are animations of things like spin one half online, but these animations are not necessarily representative of the reality of what a spin state is.

• Photon is spin 1, light is polarized, alternating magnetic field
• Speculated Higgs is spin 0
• Gravity is spin 2, like a rectangle shape spun
• Electron, Proton and Neutron are spin 1/2, or Plank's reduced constant over two

Belt Trick - Jason Hise on YouTube
Belts attaching a spinning cube to the environment do not become tangled or twisted up as the cube continues to rotate. The cube must rotate a full 720 degrees before the belts end up back where they started.

We see in the following video, how angular momentum of spinning bodies can produce very odd effects. Despite scientists claims the "quantum spin" states have no physical representation, there clearly must be something physical going on to produce the behaviour being modelled by the mathematics for the quantum spin states. If these quantum spin states have no physical representation, then we must assume they are purely a mathematical convenience which although useful to predict experimental behavior, tells us nothing of the reality which exists to cause these results. The ideas of quantum spin point out a major problem with quantum mechanics.

These quantum spin states, must have some representation in reality, contrary to what physicist say. If their mathematics is so convoluted and complex they can do longer give an example of this quantum spin behavior in reality, then it obviously the theories no longer represents the reality which it is supposed to model. The characteristics of quantum spin are attempting to explain some real experimental results, no? The math is attempting to explain reality is it not? Then how can there be no way to grasp the real situation which quantum spin represents? It is clear the underlying reality of the situation has been entirely lost in the mathematics. Are the physicists really proposing that what exists in reality can only be represents by complex math which has no real interpretation? The stance of quantum mechanic physicists has been, no one really understands why quantum mechanics behaves this way or what it represents in reality, but it is useful for predicting the outcome from experiments. This is a ludicrous stance to take showing a deep, underlying problem within quantum mechanics. We see clearly why Albert Einstein felt that, quantum mechanics would be left behind at some point.

Perhaps this quantum spin can represent similar situations to the odd physical states spinning bodies can take in reality. However, rather than purely physical mass in rotation, within an atomic system the fields play a very significant role, so the result could be slightly different than the purely physical case.

We give this video example of the Dzhanibekov Effect, where due to a slight imbalance in the mass of an object in rotation, we find the spinning object in zero gravity will oscillate between two different states of rotation.
Dancing T-handle in zero-g, HD - Plasma Ben on YouTube

Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas experiments.

Einstein and de Haas published two papers in April 1915 containing a description of the expected effect and the experimental results. In the paper "Experimental proof of the existence of Ampere's molecular currents" they described in details the experimental apparatus and the measurements performed. Their result for the ratio of the angular momentum of the sample to its magnetic moment (the authors called it λ ) was very close (within 3%) to the expected value of 2m/e. It was realized later that their result with the quoted uncertainty of 10% was not consistent with the correct value which is close to m/e. Apparently, the authors underestimated the experimental uncertainties. This was dubbed the the "gyro-magnetic anomaly"

Thus the resulting angular momentum was almost twice what was expected by just the orbital electron magnetic moments alone. It was later determined that the electrons themselves had a magnetic moment due to intrinsic electron spin, which added to the effect. In fact more recent tests have determined, Therefore, in pure iron 96% of the magnetization is provided by the polarization of the electrons' spins, while the remaining 4% is provided by the polarization of their orbital angular momenta. - Reck, R. A.; Fry, D. L. (1969). "Orbital and Spin Magnetization in Fe-Co, Fe-Ni, and Ni-Co". Physical Review. 184 (2): 492–495. Thus a iron permanent magnet, gets its magnetic field almost entirely from the electron spins, not the electron orbits.

This brings up the question as to whether we have the capability, with magnetic resonance devices, to significantly alter not only orbital spins, but the electron spins themselves. What happens if intrinsic electron spin is altered?

Bose-Einstein Condensates

We have proven matter can be combined and act as a single wave function. When super cooled, and all atoms are at the same ground state, they can appear as one single atom.

We can speculate if this process is more pervasive in reality then previously expected and discuss this effect in relation to the existence of the Strong force in the nucleus of the atom and the 'cloud' nature of electrons orbiting the atom.

We can further speculate, this process does occur to some extent at the macroscopic level and could be applied in some fashion to the galaxy rotation problem. Obviously, not directly, but there does seem to be suggested a more general form of this concept of condensates, or a conglomeration of fields to appear as a single larger coherent entity. If the Earth were to collide with another body in space, the collision occurs as if between two objects, not between innumerable smaller objects. We understand the Earth as a singular thing. Thus there is some mechanism for forms to take on more general or condensed appearances, even at the macroscopic level.

There is much more to this concept than we currently realize.

Measurement in Quantum Mechanics

The concept of a measurement in Quantum mechanics is ANY interaction with the environment which can be detected. We consider the definition of measurement to be exceedingly important when considering the 'probability' and 'non-locality' experiments of quantum mechanics. For measuring one state, may preclude the ability to measure another state.

We can consider the possibility a 'particle' is oscillating in time between two completely different states, once you measure one state the other state no longer exists, making it impossible to measure the other state, and vice versa. For example, consider a photon is oscillating between two state, an electromagnetic wave as one state and a mechanical wave of force as the other state. It is not both these states at the same time, but oscillating between them.

If we measure the photon electromagnetically, as a wave, the mechanical state no longer exists as the energy has been extracted as electromagnetic energy. If we measure the state as a particle with the mechanical wave component, then we have taken the energy of the photon as mechanical energy, and thus the electromagnetic energy no longer exists to be measured. By the very nature of it having two states in oscillation, readily explains why only one or the other can be detected.

Further, all measurement involves matter and electromagnetic energy itself. It is entirely possible there could be non-magnetic energy components to matter and photons, which would be exceedingly difficult to detect. We would only see the 'shadow' of such a field in our three dimensional world, and its existence and behaviour would be exceedingly puzzling. There is no question the very concept of measurement must be very rigorously defined in physics or we may be led astray.

Quantum Zeno Effect

The quantum Zeno effect is an interesting postulate related the concept of measurement in quantum mechanics. The basic idea is, since the collapse of the probabilities of a quantum system is due to a measurement of the system, it would be possible to 'force' a quantum system into a specific state using the measurements. Under the precept of the quantum Zeno effect, we could keep a quantum system in a specific state, just be repeatedly observing or measuring it rapidly over and over.

Quantum Jumps

The idea of electrons or energy, jumping from one state to the next, without occupying the states or spaces between these jumps poses a problem in physics. How can something move or change, without occupying any of the intermediate positions or states. This is akin to the planet Earth suddenly jumping to a new orbit. Most physicists just dismiss this as a problem and consider it a philosophical issue at this point, saying it does not really matter how the jump occurs only that it does.

The quantum Zeno effect has been proposed as a solution to this problem, that we cannot measure a 'jump' in any intermediate state, simply because the act of measurement itself, forces the result into the final state. Thus measurement itself is responsible for seeing quantum states occur in discrete jumps.

The more logical proposal, involves the ideas of classical resonance and fundamental vibrational modes and there is a quantum trajectory theory. It is highly likely there is some inherent fundamental property in the Universe, which institutes or limits these "quantum" leaps or discrete jumps.

Venn Light Polarization Problem

We are confronted with a very interesting situation, called the Venn Problem. If we have 2 polarized filters and light is applied, the first filter will only let through light polarized in a single direction. If we then pass this same light through a second polarizing filter which is rotated 90 degrees to the first, the light will be blocked. However, if we then add a third polarizing filter rotated 45 degrees to the second, we will then see some light pass through.

This result is very difficult to explain with any classic understanding of particles and waves, as how can something be blocked by the second filter, then unblocked by a new filter added after the blockage? Quantum Mechanics also has difficulty resolving this result and resorts to some very convoluted explanations and math to propose a resolution.

A single hidden variable resolves this with ease and is likely the Occam's razor solution. Consider the following explanation.
If light has a third property which is unaffected by the polarization filters, so although we consider the visible light to be 'blocked', something is still getting through, then this third property is converted back into electromagnetic light when it encounters the third filter. That is, polarizing filters do not entirely block light, they only block the electromagnetic component of light and a non-electromagnetic third component of the light still passes through all filters. This is a much simpler explanation, but contrary to established physics at this time.

Non-Locality Experiments

Experiments are performed with 'quantum entangled' particles, wherein when the state of one entangled particle is measured, it collapses the state of the other particle to which it is entangled. This happens regardless of distance. The method used a special crystal to split/entangle the photon. Bell's Inequality theorem (dependent on there not being SuperDetermism and no statistical independence) mathematically demonstrates it is very unlikely there is any 'hidden variables' and thus strongly suggests the Universe is Non-Local. That is there is no physical connection between the two entangled particles, they are somehow non-locally interacting.

The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox and Bell's Inequality theorem

The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox and Bell's Inequality theorem depends on there not being SuperDetermism and no statistical independence. It does not prove there is no free will if Bell's Inequality theorem holds despite many physicists who claim it does and ignore the possibility of SuperDeterminism and statistical independence. Spooky action at a distance is not the correspondence of two states unknown until observation, which the quantum entanglement truly is, but something more physical than that.

In brief the experiment does the following:
By passing particles through a double slit experiment, we see the particles produces an interference pattern, as if they were waves. To explain this quantum mechanics introduced the concept of the "wave function" and explains all particles as "wave functions" represents by Greek symbol psi. However, if we measure which slit the particle goes through at the slit, then the particle loses this wave characteristic, in quantum mechanics this is described as collapsing or reduction of the wave function. If the particle is at both slits, like a wave would have to be for it to produce interference, then collapsing the wave function at one slit, means it must have also collapsed at the other slit some distance away, instantly. This is Einstein's definition of spooky action at a distance.

You can attempt to reconcile this behaviour with the concept of "hidden variables" but these variables would have to account for the behaviour seemly knowing before hand which path it was going to take, before the measurement was even made. That is when the measurement at one slit is made, that particle at the other slit must already be in the state it must be because of the measurement at the other slit, but that measurement may not even have happened yet.

This idea that the path is decided and known before the measurement is even made is what is called, "Super Determinism" and is considered ruled out by Bell's Inequality theorem. Bell's Inequality theorem states the probability of an outcome, which depends on hidden variables, with measurements applied does not equal the probability of an outcome which depends only on hidden variables and no measurement applied. However, it has been pointed out by Sabine and others, the result depend on what and when the measurement is applied and there are more cases then covered by Bell's theorem. It has been proposed experiments on very COLD, SMALL and FAST measurements, would not adhere to Bell's Inequality theorem. Further a mathematical paper was released, which is not well known, which disproved some of the conjectures of Bell' Inequality theorem.

Hidden Variables

Again, we will propose here the nature of the 'hidden variable' to be an additional field component of the Universe, related to electromagnetism, but itself is non-electromagnetic. Both particles and photon would have this component. When a particle passes through a slit, this component is broader in scope then the electromagnetic field and behaves much differently. Since it is non-electromagnetic, it unfortunately cannot be readily measured using electromagnetic measurement devices. We can think of this third component like a pervasive, scalar component to all particles, which only upon measurement collapses into electromagnetic components.

Loosely, this concept is like Einstein-Rosen's ideas of a 'wormhole' or tunnel through regular space/time between two points and it is interesting to consider this original paper suggested this concept as the fundamental mechanism of particle creation. Although the original theory could not properly account for particle masses and sizes, there does appear further merit to this direction of inquiry. We find some reference to the possibility of this additional component possibly occupying another dimension in the Universe, like a fifth dimension, as discussed in Einstein Unified Field Theory Completed - by James E. Beichler.

Despite how difficult it is for us to grasp the concepts of four dimensions, let alone five, evidence is mounting that this is indeed the reality in which we find ourselves. Especially when confronted with such 'non-local' and 'spooky action at a distance' problems. It really appears as if there must be some further underlying component to the Universe, which connects everything, is related to the density of mass/energy, but is not electromagnetic and is not limited to the speed of light. These characteristics show in themselves the difficulty we would have discovering such a component, for if it is not electromagnetic or mass/energy in the ordinary sense how do we measure it? It would be like trying to hold air in a fish net.

Hidden variable alternative to quantum spookiness fails - BigThink.com

Quantum Gravity

For all discrete points in the Universe to interact, there must be some mediator which 'communicates' the action between the discrete particles. The mediation problem was proposed with the idea of a field, which can carry the forces through free space. Thus the concepts of a field, and the gravitational field and electromagnetic field were postulated as mechanisms for their actions at a distance. At the time these ideas came to be, the fields were thought to be propagated through some medium, the ether. Now we consider the fields themselves to be independent of any medium, capable of propagating themselves.

We could ask though, what is the mediator for something like conservation of energy. Say we add energy to the Sun, is it logical to say the Universe takes time to propagate the conservation of energy out to the remaining mass in the Universe, so that it takes 8 minutes for the principle of conservation of energy to reach the Earth?

Interestingly, no mediator has been proposed for gravity, other than gravitons. Since they are so weak, gravitons are even considered to have no real influence on the standard model and are often not even included anymore in in diagrams of the standard model. It seems very hypocritical to claim the Standard Model is a complete description of particles and yet it completely disregards the force of gravity upon those particles. How can a theory of mass, disregard the fundamental force upon which mass interacts? Established physics has even gone so far as to claim mass, and thus gravity, is a property which particles need not even have. There seems to be a huge oversight here and a large elephant in the room of the Standard Model, that no one wishes to acknowledge. They have even recently stopped using the graviton in images of the Standard Model particles.

Quantum theory shares this idea, of gravitational field being too weak to be of consequence in quantum mechanics and thus it is disregarded in most cases. There are efforts to try to find the connection between gravity and quantum theory, thus the proposal for a theory of "Quantum Gravity". However, the search for such a theory will ever remain elusive, even some obscure connection between entanglement and masses in crystal is discovered as per recent efforts

Recent paper discusses the mediation of entanglement may happen through gravity. Currently it is speculated in The Standard Model, that gravitational force is mediated through the "graviton" which has never been detected. The explanation for the lack of detection, is the graviton energy would be exceedingly weak, required very high power colliders to detect it. They have determined, photons cannot mediate entanglement, thus cannot be responsible for the results.

We would speculate, although gravitational field may potentially be related to entanglement, gravity cannot have a quantum nature. The mediation of gravitational field is through characteristics which must be continuous by there very nature and thus cannot be quantized. This mediator would be responsible for the continuous nature of energy itself.

We also further speculated, we are already aware of a quantum nature to gravity, at least in terms of mass seeming to form into very specific quantities. Proton, electron, neutron always have very specific mass in the Universe, we do not see some proton of heavier or lesser mass, but assume all protons have a very similar specific mass. Is this not the definition of quanta, that there are specific, discrete amounts? Otherwise we would expect a whole spectrum of proton masses depending on some other variables in the Universe.

The Problem with Quantum Mechanics

We can readily measure the spectrum of elements by putting the light through a prism and then measuring the frequency/colors of the resulting lines we see( or missing lines ). However, the real question and something which should provide a tremendous simplification to the entire problem is to reconsider what it is exactly we are seeing and measuring. It seems like the atoms want to absorb or emit energy only at specific wavelengths and thus we go down the road of quantum mechanics which lays down the rules as to what these quantum energy levels are, the well known E=hf.

What no one yet to this day can really explain in simple terms is "Why this atomic energy should be quantized?" What is bounding the energy into these discrete frequencies within the atoms? Of course mathematicians and physicists will immediately embark on extensive mental gymnastics regarding ground states, Pauli exclusion and so on an so forth, but all these answers evade the real important and simple question with complex, long winded and circular arguments. The questions remains, Why would energy become quantized? What is the real underlying mechanisms which bounds the energy? We can ask why an electron has a quantized charge, a fixed mass, why a proton has a fixed mass and all proton and electron mass are the same throughout the Universe. These very fundamental questions remains unanswered.

Perhaps there is yet a simpler answer. Quantum mechanics explains the spectrum, it explains experimental results in many cases where current classical theory fails, but it cannot be certain it is the "best" and is definitely not the "simplest" answer. It is the answer we chose to pursue and today there is little effort to discover a better, simpler solution.

Electrons and Electricity

Here we will discuss some interesting information about Electrons, Electricity and Electric Charge

Established physics has defined many characteristics of the electron and is yet to define other characteristics of the electron. Long touted as the primary carrier of electric field and electricity, electrons are critical to the physics of the Universe, but many unsolved questions remain. Currently we have been unable to determine the size of an Electron, yet we know they take up volume. Through the Millikan Oil Drop experiment we have determined electrons have mass, about 10^-31 Kg, and have the fundamental unit of electric charge, about 1.6×10−19 C. However, our attempts at determining the size of an electron have been met with failure.

In order to determine the actual size of an electron, the method we are employing is to just shoot two electrons at each other. If we shoot them toward each other with enough energy, their kinetic energy should be sufficient to overcome the repulsion of their charge and get them to collide. The energy required to do this, tells us an approximate size for the electron. As of yet, they have been unable to detect or collide electrons together to determine their radius even at 10^18 eV of energy. It is estimated they would get this collision at 10^23 or even 10^35 eV. Thus as of 2024, the true size of an electron is unknown. Whether the radius of an electron is ever determined, may itself be up for debate.

Another unusual characteristic of an electron is its quantum spin of ½ which means an electron must be rotated 720 degrees ( 2 x 360 ) to return to the same state. Thus quantum mechanics talks about spin up of an electron when it is in the first 360 of its rotation and spin down is an electron is the second 360 of its rotation. There is no known physical analog of this quantum spin ½.

When we speak of static charge, we must be speaking of it in a relative sense to our own local reference frame. As a static charge on the surface of the Earth, is from an outside reference point a charge moving with the rotation of the Earth, moving in orbit around the Sun, etc etc. In different inertial frames, the forces appear and are calculated differently, this is one of the principles set down in special relativity.

From Feynman lecture 13-6
When we said that the magnetic force on a charge was proportional to its velocity, you may have wondered: “What velocity? With respect to which reference frame?” It is, in fact, clear from the definition of B given at the beginning of this chapter that what this vector is will depend on what we choose as a reference frame for our specification of the velocity of charges. But we have said nothing about which is the proper frame for specifying the magnetic field.

It turns out that any inertial frame will do. We will also see that magnetism and electricity are not independent things — that they should always be taken together as one complete electromagnetic field. Although in the static case Maxwell’s equations separate into two distinct pairs, one pair for electricity and one pair for magnetism, with no apparent connection between the two fields, nevertheless, in nature itself there is a very intimate relationship between them that arises from the principle of relativity. Historically, the principle of relativity was discovered after Maxwell’s equations. It was, in fact, the study of electricity and magnetism which led ultimately to Einstein’s discovery of his principle of relativity. But let’s see what our knowledge of relativity would tell us about magnetic forces if we assume that the relativity principle is applicable—as it is—to electromagnetism. - Richard Feynman

In 1931, Paul Dirac speculated the quantization of electric field appears to require magnetic mono-poles to exist, yet none have ever been found. We would here suggest magnetic mono-poles do not exist, as this is like saying you can have a vector with only one component. A magnetic field is polar and it really makes no physical sense to have one pole, just like it makes no sense to talk about the magnitude of a vector without its associated direction. A magnetic mono-pole would be like having an axis of rotation, with only one pole. A magnetic mono-pole is like saying you can have up without down. The suggestion of magnetic mono-poles shows a misunderstanding of what magnetic field truly represents. If the theories of quantization of electric field require magnetic mono-poles, then we would conclude the approach of said theory is somewhere mistaken.

We can ask, "What does an electron actually look like?" and go down an deep rabbit hole of conjecture and mathematical complexity. The simple answer to this at present, is no one knows. We have an incredible amount of information about electrons and electricity, and yet even today we cannot for certain say we KNOW what electricity or electrons truly are.

One of the most interesting explanation of electrons, comes from quantum physics and the standard particle model, which demonstrates how electrons can form from "pair production" of energetic properties of the vacuum. Such electron's can the self annihilate back into these pairs of particles, which then go on to form a new electron. Thus electrons are constantly being recreated all the time and no single electron every exists as the same electron for an extended period of time. They describe this as electrons being smeared across the space, or as if there is a cloud of electron probability but not really any definite electron. We have even seen demonstrate, how the electrons seem to behave as waves and can diffract and interfere like electromagnetic waves.

What Does An Electron ACTUALLY Look Like? - from PBS Space Time on YouTube

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The main concept upon which a Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging machine or any magnetic resonance imaging machine works, is the existence of atomic magnetic fields. In order to induce nuclear magnetic resonance, the atoms we wish to resonate with our external magnetic fields, must have a magnetic field or magnetic moment themselves.

The magnetic properties of all materials are related to the behaviour of the electrons in the atoms of the material. An electron in orbit can be thought of as a miniature loop of electric current. According to the laws of electromagnetism, such a loop will create a magnetic field. Each electron in orbit around an atomic nucleus produces its own magnetic field, and the sum of these fields, together with the intrinsic fields of the electrons and the nucleus, determines the magnetic field of the atom. Unless all of these fields cancel out, the atom can be thought of as a tiny magnet.

In ordinary materials, the magnetic fields of the atoms making up the material, are usually very disorganized. The magnetic fields of the atoms in something, do not all line up, but point in somewhat random orientations. In order to get a clear picture, out of all this random magnetic noise, we need to create some alignment within the material we wish to image. In MRI machines, this alignment is done with a large superconducting electromagnet. When an object is placed in this powerful magnetic field, the magnetic fields of each atom in the object, will try to line up with the magnetic field direction of our powerful electromagnet. The atomic magnets line up with our big electromagnetic field, exactly the same way a compass aligns itself with the magnetic field of the Earth.

"The main element of an MRI machine is a massive electromagnet coil that fills most of the enclosure. The ability to capture detailed images quickly depends on having a very powerful magnetic field, usually in the range of 1 to 3 Tesla. (1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss.) Some specialized machines designed for super-detailed images inside a patient's head can be as high as 7 Tesla. Generating that kind of field requires superconducting coils cooled with liquid helium. This giant magnet is the part of a MRI machine, we see when we get a MRI."

Now, this is the technical explanation of how this magnetic alignment is used to create an image in MRI.

"Inside the magnet, we have the RF antenna (anatomically shaped surface coils), which picks up the MR signal, emitted from the tissue sample, and then we have a gradient coil which helps us find the spatial location where the signal is coming from. The gradient coil is made up of three groupings of coils, oriented on the X, Y, and Z axes. With three axes, you can construct a volume. We have our RF signal, and at the same time, we superimpose this gradient over it. This gives us three orientations to work with. If we want to make a horizontal 'cut,' we make the gradient in the horizontal direction a uniform value. If we want to look at the thickness of that volume, we vary the other planes, the Y and Z, and slowly move them around through a 360 degree change in gradient strength. We control the amount, so we know exactly how the plane is rotating. The only thing that is moving is current inside the coil."

The average person will not immediately see how this is possible, because an important piece of information is left out of the previous explanation. What the average person needs to understand, to fully grasp the operation of MRI, is one of the basic principles of quantum mechanics. We need to understand what exactly is meant by a "quantum". A quantum is a discrete bundle or packet of energy. The atomic magnetic fields cannot exist at all possible strengths of magnetic field, but must occupy distinct quantum's or levels of energy. If an atom wants to change how much magnetic field it has, then it must absorb or emit a distinct photon of energy. Each atom will emit or absorb different photons of energy, depending on the atoms magnetic field strength. This is the basis of all spectroscopy.

In a material, in which the atoms are not magnetically aligned, these photons will be emitted or absorbed from all directions. Not only in all directions, but at all energy levels each atom is capable of emitting. When we magnetically align these atoms, as we have done with our strong electromagnetic field, we get these emissions or absorptions to occur in a specific direction and at specific frequencies.

So whereas before we could not detect these emissions, because they were in random directions and at random energies( random frequencies and wavelengths ), by aligning the atomic magnetic fields we get more of these signals to line up, and thus the signal or photons emitted are in the same direction and the total signal will be strong enough to detect.

So the magnetic alignment of a strong electromagnetic field has allowed scientists to tune into the signals emitted by the atoms themselves. You can receive this atomic transmission exactly like in an ordinary radio, with a Radio Frequency or RF antenna or coil. This is the Magnetic Resonance signal, or RF signal and is receive by the RF antenna or coil discussed in the previous explanation of MRI.

In addition to a strong electromagnet and an RF antenna, there is one more component of our MRI machine, the Gradient Coils. If you think about the previously described case, you may have noticed a problem. Although, we have used a strong electromagnet and a RF antenna to receive a signal from the object we are imaging, we will receive this signal from all the atoms in the object at once. Not that this is not useful for spectroscopy and other applications, but for medical imaging we would want a more precise image of a specific part or section of the object.

In order to receive a signal from only certain atoms within the object we are imaging, we need a way to isolate signals coming from a specific point. This can be done, using 3 more electromagnetic coils, which in MRI machines have been named the Gradient Coils. In a modern MRI machine, there are usually 3 pairs of electromagnetic coils( for a total of 6 coils ), with their axis of alignment arranged along each of the 3-dimensions( the X,Y and Z axis ). You can visualize this easily, as a cube, with a circular magnetic coil pasted flat to each face of the cube( 6 faces on a cube gives us 6 coils.)

To understand how the Gradient Coils work, we only need to consider what happens when we use one set of gradient coils, as the same concept applies to the other two sets of coils. With a pair of coils, we can create a magnetic field in a specific direction. If we apply electric current to our coils in one direction, we get a magnetic field in one direction. If we reverse the electric current, we reverse the direction of the magnetic field. Likewise, if we put more current through one coil than the other, we can produce a magnetic field which is stronger at one end than the other. This is a magnetic field gradient.

When our object being magnetic resonance imaged, is placed in a magnetic field gradient, there is a different magnetic field strength across the object. This causes a different signal to be emitted from the atoms at one end of the object versus the signal emitted from the atoms at the other end of the object. So using the application of a magnetic field gradient, produced by our gradient coils, we can isolate different sections of our object. By using a three dimensional arrangement of gradient coils, we can isolate a signal from any 3-dimensional point within our object.

If nothing's moving, why the noise?
"Metellus says MRI machines make a loud acoustic noise because, when you pass current through the gradient coil that lies within the electromagnetic field, the currents are opposing each other, resulting in a sound of varying intensity. Depending on the scanning algorithm, it has a different rhythm. While the sound suggests something is spinning inside the housing, there are no moving parts. In fact, keeping everything still, especially the patient, creates the highest quality images."

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Machine ( MRI )

Inside a Magnetic Resonance Imaging Machine ( MRI ) Simple Hardware Diagram

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Machine Gradient Coils
(note the 3-Dimensional arrangement)

Medical images taken of the human body are acquired or displayed in three main orientations:

1. Coronal orientation: in a cross section (plane), for example, across the shoulders, dividing the body into front and back halves
2. Sagittal orientation: in a cross section (plane), for example, down the middle, dividing the body into left and right halves
3. Axial orientation: in a cross section (plane), perpendicular to the long axis of the body, dividing the body into upper and lower halves

Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry Simple Diagram

Magnetic resonance Imaging Electronics and Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

A pallet jack pulled into an MRI magnet.

Palm Sized MRI Machines?

How to build and test a small Magnetic Resonance Device

How Magnetic Resonance Amplification Works

Heat

The ideas of heat and temperature cannot be left out of all this. Heat is the thermal energy transferred between systems due to a temperature difference.

The Laws of Thermodynamics

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics defines thermal equilibrium and forms a basis for the definition of temperature: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• The first law of thermodynamics states that, when energy passes into or out of a system (as work, heat, or matter), the system's internal energy changes in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
• The second law of thermodynamics states that in a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems never decreases. A common corollary of the statement is that heat does not spontaneously pass from a colder body to a warmer body.
• The third law of thermodynamics states that a system's entropy approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. With the exception of non-crystalline solids (glasses), the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero.

Entropy and Gravity

Of importance to this document, is the relationship between Entropy and Gravity. We should understand that Entropy is not disorder or chaos as many think, Entropy is actually a measure of uniformity or can even be considered a balance. This is contrary to most peoples idea of entropy as chaos or disorder. This is a misunderstanding of Entropy. If we shuffle a deck of cards, the mixture is not more chaotic, it is more uniform and consistent, not necessarily more chaotic. It is no longer in numerical order, but the state has become more spread out and averaged. This is a better way to think of entropy.

The Universe is completely in balance in its energy, the law of conservation of energy, but it is also completely in balance in terms of its entropy. Established physics tells us the entropy is constantly increasing, but what this really means, is there is a force tending to make the Universe uniform in structure, to make it all the same. The entropy of the Universe is not tending towards heat or cool, it is tending towards uniformity, it is tending to want to all be the same temperature, it is tending to be warm, or grey, a perfect mix of hot and cold or a mix of black and white. This is what Entropy is and any other notions merely confuse this concept of entropy as uniformity, not order or chaos.

"Isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, where the entropy is highest."

There is further development of the ideas of entropy as related to the statistic of the kinetic energy of the atoms in a region, from where these concepts of entropy applied to order and disorder stem, but even the statistical explanation should not refer to the differences of states as being order or disorder as this confuses the real concept of entropy. You cannot really say a box at a higher temperature is more ordered or disordered than a box at a lower temperature, it may have more total kinetic energy and thus a difference in state, but temperature is not a measure of order or disorder, it is only a measure of kinetic energy of the constituent atoms, which has nothing to do with the order or chaos of the system.

If we have a box where a gas is confined to one side of the box by a barrier, then remove the barrier, the entropy increases as the gas spreads throughout the box. Thus the box in its previous divided state, had less entropy. The division is a decrease in entropy. The perfect mixing is an increase in entropy.

When we consider any process, such as gravity or better even a pressure wave in space, we find that as there is a entropic balance being maintained. Although the compressed matter in body formed by gravity, can be considered reduced entropy by becoming a smaller hotter state, there is an equal and opposite tendency for gravity to expand and cool the space around it which increases entropy. Thus from a total the entropy of such a situation appears to remain balanced.

However, on closer inspection we now have a division of energy, the energy separated into two regions and this not being a uniform condition represents a decrease in entropy. The Second Law of thermodynamics requires entropy to always increase for every process, thus the total entropy of the system must have increased. This occurs because the expansion is asymmetric from the contraction, by a certain ration, thus causing a slight unbalance in the total entropy, to cause an increase in entropy.

We find a great deal of confusion online and continuous debate and circular arguments about entropy and gravity and the reason for this is the lack of understanding of what the second law of thermodynamics truly represents, an asymmetry in the flow of energy in a system. Although entropy is a tendency for uniformity, it can never be completely uniform due to the asymmetry. We see the confusion in responses such as the following. Where one comment states the entropy must increase in the case of gravitational collapse, but another mathematically proves the entropy does not change at all.

The following two quotes on Entropy are contradictory and show the significant confusion regarding the concept of Entropy.

"For low enough initial temperature, the self-gravitating cloud cannot be stable because when any given part of the whole cloud loses energy, that part gets hotter and shrinks, while another part gains energy, gets colder and expands. The temperature difference is now enhanced so the process continues. The net result is that the fluctuations in density or temperature in the cloud grow, and the whole process is called condensation. The parts that shrink lose entropy, while the parts that expand gain entropy, and there is a net entropy increase because, as usual, the direction of heat flow at any time is such as to guarantee this. There is no violation of the Second Law. On the contrary: the Second Law is fully obeyed, as it is in all of physics."

"The entropy of a collapsing gas cloud is calculated in detail at http://rickbradford.co.uk/AppendixB1_EntropyofCollapsingGasCloud.pdf . The main result is
"...we find the change in the total entropy of the gas plus the radiation for a change in gas volume of dV to be zero
dStotal=dSgas+dSrad=0"
Thus, the overall change in entropy is zero, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics in the limiting case of a reversible change."

The conflict seems to arise due to the second individual considering this as a limiting case which is reversible, when the reality is it is not reversible. Further as we have pointed out, the whole event is asymmetric and causes an expansion of the size of the total system, which by its very nature implies an increase in entropy.

Thus we can conclude, for the most part gravity does in a sense appear to decrease entropy, but from a broader perspective there is still a slight increase in overall entropy which holds the second law of thermodynamics. The the Universe can tend to ordered states such as the formation of Stars, planets and solar systems which we see exist, but this comes at the cost of an increase in the size of the entire Universe and thus a net increase in Entropy.

Why there is an asymmetric expansion, and even why entropy tends to increase at all, is another problem of cosmology and the reason for the introduction of the concept of "dark energy". Although we touch on this concept elsewhere, we could suggest that "dark energy" is entirely due to the second law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics is due to an asymmetric nature of the Unified Field.

Relationship of Temperature to Pressure

Pressure = Force * Area.

As a volume decreases for a given force, the pressure increases. Pressure is distributed over the volume it occupies against the confining surface. Interestingly the pressure at the bottom of a thin tube of water, increases dramatically with height, as the area of the output remains small and the force increases with height?
pressure = density * force of gravity * height
The pressure for a given amount of liquid on the wide side of a conical vessel will not be equal to the weight of the same volume of water on the narrow end of a conical vessel.

Hydraulic pressure principle. A small force on a small area can produce a much large force on a larger area when confined to the same volume. In a hydraulic system, the smaller area must move further, then the larger area, which is why you can get the mechanical advantage. So for this to work in a spherical volume, the larger volume moves more and slower, than the smaller volume.

There is an absolute zero temperature at which matter must become dissolute. We see too a boundary as the heat death or complete entropy of the Universe. The two concepts must be taken account in any Unified Field theory. Why in the early Universe, did it not experience immediate heat death? Where did the initial heat come from, why was the original Universe not just at absolute zero or became absolute zero almost immediately after the apparent Big Bang is puzzling.

We see here there does seem to be some difficulty determining the real situation in the Big Bang and we some some very convoluted mathematics to explain the situation. We find some sanity in this quote from Penrose, "The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy can only increase, so if the early universe had been in a state of maximum entropy, then the cosmos would have experienced its heat death immediately after being born. This contradicts the observation that the present universe contains burning stars, heat engines, and life. These observations imply that the early universe was in a very low-entropy state, which shows that its initial conditions were extremely finely tuned. The reasons for this fine-tuning are not explained by general relativity or the standard model. Adding inflation to the model does not cure this fine-tuning problem." - Penrose 2005

We also find this interesting bit of information:
"The belief in a heat death was based on an idea that I call the cooking rule. The cooking rule says that a piece of steak gets warmer when we put it on a hot grill. More generally, the rule says that any object gets warmer when it gains energy, and gets cooler when it loses energy. Humans have been cooking steaks for thousands of years, and nobody ever saw a steak get colder while cooking on a fire. The cooking rule is true for objects small enough for us to handle. If the cooking rule is always true, then Lord Kelvin’s argument for the heat death is correct.

We now know that the cooking rule is not true for objects of astronomical size, for which gravitation is the dominant form of energy. The sun is a familiar example. As the sun loses energy by radiation, it becomes hotter and not cooler. Since the sun is made of compressible gas squeezed by its own gravitation, loss of energy causes it to become smaller and denser, and the compression causes it to become hotter. For almost all astronomical objects, gravitation dominates, and they have the same unexpected behaviour. Gravitation reverses the usual relation between energy and temperature. In the domain of astronomy, when heat flows from hotter to cooler objects, the hot objects get hotter and the cool objects get cooler. As a result, temperature differences in the astronomical universe tend to increase rather than decrease as time goes on. There is no final state of uniform temperature, and there is no heat death. Gravitation gives us a universe hospitable to life. Information and order can continue to grow for billions of years in the future, as they have evidently grown in the past. - Freeman Dyson

This seems to be the best answer as to how the Universe did not immediately die a heat death:
It's an example of adiabatic expansion. If you have a container full of gas and you expand the container, the gas cools. Entropy is preserved.

Adiabatic processes preserve entropy. Any decrease in entropy due to lowered energy, and correspondingly fewer possible velocities for the particles, is offset by an increase in entropy due to the expanding volume, and correspondingly increased possible positions for the particles.

The reason adiabatic expansion loses energy is due to energy being absorbed by the expanding container. It may seem confusing for this to apply to expanding spacetime, since you can't push on the universe and get it to absorb energy. My knowledge of general relativity is pretty much limited to what I found on Wikipedia, but as far as I can tell, the answer is that the universe totally does work that way. The stress-energy tensor, which controls the shape of the universe and how it changes, includes pressure. As far as I can understand, an object under pressure causes the universe to expand and the energy is absorbed by the gravitational field. - From DanielLC (https://physics.stackexchange.com/users/64166/daniellc), How can it be that the beginning universe had a high temperature and a low entropy at the same time?, URL (version: 2015-03-02): https://physics.stackexchange.com/q/167855

The cooling method known as Laser cooling is important to understanding heat in materials.
Laser light of a specific infrared frequency is used. The specific frequency is one just below the absorption frequency of the specific materials atoms which are being cooled. Since this frequency is just below the absorption frequency, the energy is not immediately absorbed when this laser light is shone on the material to be cooled. Due to the Doppler effect, the motion of the atoms in the material can cause the frequency to match the absorption frequency. This occurs when direction of motion of the atom is into the direction the laser light is shining onto the material. Thus when the light is absorbed from this specific direction of motion, this difference in energy due to the Doppler effect is lost by the atom and its velocity decreases, thus its heat decreases. The energy gained by the absorption is eventually lost by the emission of a different photon in a random direction, thus the heat is lost even though energy was absorbed. If this principle uses laser light applied from all 6 directions it can cool the matter to very low temperatures. Of course the material is cooled as much as possible using normal methods prior to the application of laser cooling. This demonstrates how electromagnetic fields like light, can directly influence the energy of atoms, even causing the atoms to lose not gain energy.

Just for fun:
In general, substances that burned in the air were said to be rich in phlogiston; the fact that combustion soon ceased in an enclosed space was taken as clear-cut evidence that air had the capacity to absorb only a finite amount of phlogiston. When the air had become completely phlogisticated it would no longer serve to support the combustion of any material, nor would a metal heated in it yield a calx; nor could phlogisticated air support life. Breathing was thought to take phlogiston out of the body.

Gravitational Radiation

Quoted from: Universe Second Edition by William J. Kaufmann III. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York. 1988.

A gravitational wave is a ripple in the overall geometry of space and time. As an example of how these ripples are produced, think of a man who is 80 kg. All matter has gravity, and general relativity tells us that gravity curves space and time. Thus, the 80 kg man is surrounded by a slight warping of space and time commensurate with his mass. Now suppose that this man begins waving his arms. Although his total mass does not change, the details of how his mass is distributed do change. The geometry of space and time must adapt to these changes, because the gravitational field of the man with his hands over his head is slightly different from that of the man when he has his hands at his sides. These minor readjustments appear as tiny ripples in the overall geometry of space and time surrounding the man. In the same way, a bouncing ball, the Moon going around the Earth, or two stars in a binary all produce gravitational waves. From the equations of general relativity, it is possible to prove that gravitational radiation moves outward from its source at the speed of light.

Gravitational waves are difficult to detect, because they carry very little energy. To appreciate how weak gravitational waves are, imagine two electrons separated by a short distance. Because they each posses mass and charge, these electrons exert both gravitational and electric forces on each other. The gravitational force is about 10^42 times weaker than the electric force. If these two electrons are made to wiggle back and forth, they will radiate both gravitational and electromagnetic waves. Because gravity is so much weaker than electromagnetism, the resulting gravitational waves are subdued by a factor of 10^-42 compared to the electromagnetic waves.

Processes involving dramatic changes in intense gravitational fields produce the strongest bursts of gravitational radiation. For example, the collapse of a massive star's core during a supernova explosion emits substantial gravitational radiation. Of course, we cannot observe the actual core collapse with ordinary telescopes, because the outer layers of the supernova emit such an overpowering amount of light. However, gravitational waves from the collapsing core carry detailed information about how this dense matter is being rearranged. With a gravitational wave antenna, we should thus be able to observe directly the creation of a neutron star or black hole.

Although an actual burst of gravitational waves has not yet been conclusively detected, many astronomers feel that the effects of gravitational radiation have been observed. In 1974, Joseph Taylor and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts discovered a pulsar in a binary system. The system apparently consists of two neutron stars separated by only 2.8 solar radii. One of the two stars emits radio pulses every 0.059 sec, and the orbital period of the two stars about each other is only 7.75 hours. The average orbital velocity of these stars is thus about 0.1 percent of the speed of light. Because these two stars have strong gravitational fields and are moving so rapidly, this entire binary system should be a substantial source of gravitational waves. As gravitational radiation carries energy away from the system, the two stars gradually spiral in closer and closer to each other, so the orbital period of the two stars should decrease. Because one of the stars is a pulsar, radio astronomers have been able to measure its orbital period with extreme accuracy. These observations suggest that the two stars are indeed spiralling in toward each other, because of their emission of gravitational waves.

Mathematics

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality. - Albert Einstein

We would like to discuss some mathematics, as is required to explain any complex physics theory, but have no fear we are going to keep things simple. It is the belief here, mathematics is a tool by which we can understand and is not in and of itself an explanation. If we can only grasp something through pure mathematics and thus have lost touch with the reality that mathematics is meant to model or explain, then our mathematics is no longer serving its intended purpose. Thus here we are really going to try to keep things real and no resort to pure mathematics to explain things. We will leave the complex mathematics for the physicists to figure out later. Our concept does not require overly complex math, but we do need some fundamental math. We likely need go no further than calculus and the principle of least action, so we will here explain these concepts as simply as possible.

Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibnez developed Infinitesimal calculus as a way to solve a mathematical problem. Like the mathematics of geometry defines dimensions of space, shapes and volumes, algebra defines relationships between quantities and probability defines the concepts of chance and uncertainty, calculus is the mathematics of defining all things which change. Since physics is very much about how things change, calculus has been widely adopted to physics.

Introduction to Calculus - Seeing the Big Picture - Eddie Woo

As we can learn in the excellent video link above, by Mr. Eddie Woo, calculus arose from a desire to determine the instantaneous values of various curves. When we have two values changing relative to one another, we can plot these changes on a graph and for values which change in the same ratio over time, this graph would be a straight line with a slope or gradient. We can use the terms slope, gradient or tangent interchangeably, as they all represent the same concept, a ratio of change between two values. So long as this ratio is constant, the slope or tangent is imply the rise over the run of the slope. The change in x over the change in y, if those are our two values of which we want to know the ratio. The problem which arises and which Newton and Gottfried needed to solve, was how do we determine this slope or tangent, when the ratio is not constant and rather than a nice straight line we have a curve or a function which changes the ratio over time.

The way this was approached is to realize the tangent to a curve, only touches or is tangible to that curve at one point, so we want to calculate the tangent at that point. However, to calculate the slope we need a change between two points, and a single point does not satisfy this requirement. Newton saw that if we wanted to calculate the tangent for a point on a circle, we could see a possibility in using the secants of a circle which are parallel to the tangent we wish to find. Each secant of a circle does pass through two points, and as we get secants which are closer and closer to the tangent line, we get closer and closer to our solution. The problem is once we get to the final point, so calculating the slope of the secant we have a certain rise over run calculation and can get a value, but as these secants get closer and closer to the tangent, the run gets closer and closer to zero. Thus in their wisdom, they chose to discuss the results in terms of the value as the run approaches a limit, the limit of 0. This is where the name infinitesimal calculus derived. It was performing calculations as a value approached an infinitesimally small value, without actually reaching zero.

However, when we think of slope as rise over run, we cannot really think of a run of zero, and so they chose to use the terminology of change in y divided by change in x, as x approaches zero. This is the well known equation in physics of dy/dx the derivative. Thus taking the First Derivative of anything, is simply determining its slope or the tangent of some ratio of change.

Thus when we are talking about the tangent of a ratio, we are talking about the first derivative of that ratio. The gradient or slope of that ratio, its instantaneous value of change.

Integrals

The integral usually refers to the area under a curve. An integral is like the sum of the value of each of the points along the curve over the small instances of time dt.

We write the integral as the integral symbol, with two values which mark the region we are taking the integral of, then some function and the small instances we are taking the integral over.

Thus for example if you plot some curve, such as the speed or distance over time, and take the integral of that curve over a certain amount of time, it will give you the distance you travelled in that amount of time. Thus the integral is a ways to extract out one of the components of your curve to get more information about the function.

The Principle of Least Action

The principle of Least Action defines how a system will always take the most efficient path or transfer of energy in a system. All physical laws of motion, the transfer of force, the interaction of electrical charges, can be defined as processes which take the Least Action, or processes which minimize the 'action'. For example, when we use vector mathematics and the ideas of potential and kinetic energy to calculate the trajectory of rocket, we could also use the principle of Least Action to calculate that same path.

There is much more to this concept, then even physicists today yet realize. They know it can apply and explain the motion of most processes in physics, but as of yet no formal explanation as to why it is relevant has been proposed.

The Simple Math Problem That Revolutionized Physics - Veritasium on YouTube

The principle of least action - PhysicsHelps on YouTube

First if your unfamiliar with the concepts of interstellar space and the huge distances involved when travelling to another star, you should read the following articles. They will clearly illuminate why an advanced form of propulsion is required for interstellar travel to be possible.

The first step to understanding a means to travel to another star is to understand the difficulties, limitations, and potential hazards. A look at all the present and proposed methods will provide a solid foundation with which to continue the explanation.

A basic overview of the problems is listed below:

• The speed of light barrier and Relativity
• The incredibly immense distances involved
• Mass and Energy Requirements
• Time limitations
• Escaping Gravity

Two articles which are an excellent technical summary of the problems facing interstellar propulsion and the possible solutions being researched.

PDF File documenting the
Critical Problems for Interstellar Propulsion Systems

PDF File discussing all Aspects of Advanced Interstellar Propulsion Systems